This article provides an overview of local governments’ opportunities to utilise creative city thinking in their local development policy. The aim is to shed light on how creative city approaches relate to structural urban asymmetry, i.e. how structural factors condition local governments’ efforts to translate creative city theories into urban development policies. For the analysis ideal types of creative city approaches are constructed to be analysed from a structural perspective. In the empirical part, three growth-oriented approaches of these ideal types – community, business and institutionally oriented creative city policies – are discussed by presenting three cases of Finnish creative communities, those of Helsinki, Tampere and Kaustinen. Analysis reveals that structural conditions affect the critical mass and resilience rather than the range of tools applied to creative city policy. Structural conditions are particularly relevant through their resonances in governance and policy outcomes and making synergetic specialisation possible.
AtkinsonREasthopeH (2009) The consequences of the creative class: The pursuit of creativity strategies in Australia’s cities. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research33: 64–79.
2.
AzuaJ (2006) Bilbao: From the Guggenheim to the Knowledge City. In: CarilloFJ (ed.) Knowledge Cities. Approaches, Experiences, and Perspectives, Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 97–111.
3.
BagwellS (2008) Creative clusters and city growth. Creative Industries Journal1: 31–46.
4.
BeaverstockJVSmithRGTaylorPJ (1999) A roster of world cities. Cities16: 445–458.
5.
BinnsL (2005) Capitalising on Culture: An Evaluation of Culture-Led Urban Regeneration Policy, Dublin: Futures Academy, Dublin Institute of Technology.
6.
BrewerJ (2003) Ideal type. In: MillerRLBrewerJD (eds) The A–Z of Social Research, London: Sage, pp. 148.
7.
CavesRE (2000) Creative Industries, Contracts Between Art and Commerce, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
ChapainCAComunianR (2010) Enabling and inhibiting the creative economy: The role of the local and regional dimensions in England. Regional Studies44: 717–734.
10.
City of Helsinki (2008) Review of Arts and Culture in Helsinki. Urban Facts. Statistics 2008: 30. Helsinki: City of Helsinki.
11.
ComunianR (2011) Rethinking the creative city: The role of complexity, networks and interactions in the urban creative economy. Urban Studies48: 1157–1179.
12.
ComunianRChapainCCliftonN (2010) Location, location, location: Exploring the complex relationship between creative industries and place. Creative Industries Journal3: 5–10.
13.
CookePLazzerettiL (2008) Creative Cities, Cultural Clusters and Local Economic Development, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
14.
CostaPMagalhãesMVasconcelosB (2007) A discussion on the governance of ‘Creative Cities’: Some insights for policy action. Norwegian Journal of Geography61: 122–132.
15.
Costa P, Seixas J and Roldão A (2009) From ‘Creative Cities’ to ‘Urban Creativity’? Space, Creativity and Governance in the Contemporary City. DINÂMIACET Working Papers, 2009/80. Lisboa: DINÂMIACET.
Darchen S and Tremblay DG (2011) The Attraction/Retention of Knowledge Workers and the Creative City Paradigm: Can We Plan for the Talents and at What Cost? The case of Montreal. Research Note of the Canada Research Chair on the Socio-organizational Challenges of the Knowledge Economy. No 11-1A. Téluq-UQAM. Available at: www.teluq.uqam.ca/chaireecosavoir/pdf/11-1a.pdf (accessed 27 July 2012).
18.
De ProprisLChapainCCookeP (2009) The Geography of Creativity, Interim Report. London: The National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts (NESTA).
19.
Duxbury N (2004) Creative Cities: Principles and Practices. Background Paper F-47. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Networks Inc. (CPRN). Available at: cprn.org/documents/31347_fr.pdf (accessed 21 July 2012).
20.
EvansGL (2009a) From cultural quarters to creative clusters – Creative spaces in the new city economy. In: LegnerM (ed.) The Sustainability and Development of Cultural Quarters: International Perspectives, Stockholm: Institute of Urban History, pp. 32–59.
EvansJJonesP (2008) Rethinking sustainable urban regeneration: Ambiguity, creativity, and the shared territory. Environment and Planning A40: 1416–1434.
23.
Falck O, Fritsch M and Heblich S (2010) The Phantom of the Opera: Cultural Amenities, Human Capital, and Regional Economic Growth. IZA DP No. 5065. Bonn: The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). Available at: ftp.iza.org/dp5065.pdf (accessed 17 August 2012).
24.
FlewT (2012) Creative suburbia: Rethinking urban cultural policy – The Australian case. International Journal of Cultural Studies15: 231–246.
25.
FlewTCunninghamS (2010) Creative industries after the first decade of debate. The Information Society26: 113–123.
26.
FloridaR (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class, New York, NY: Basic Books.
27.
FloridaR (2003) Cities and the creative class. City and Community2: 3–19.
28.
FloridaR (2005a) Cities and the Creative Class, New York, NY: Routledge.
29.
Florida R (2005b) The world is spiky. The agenda. The Atlantic Monthly, October, 48–51.
30.
Florida R and Tinagli I (2004) Europe in the Creative Age. London: Demos/Carnegie Mellon Software Industry Center. Available at: www.demos.co.uk/files/EuropeintheCreativeAge2004.pdf (accessed 10 August 2012).
31.
FreestoneRGibsonC (2006) The cultural dimension of urban planning strategies: An historical perspective. In: MonclusJGuardiaM (eds) Culture, Urbanism and Planning, Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 21–41.
32.
GiddensA (1984) The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, Cambridge: Polity Press.
33.
GlaeserEL (2005) Review of Richard Florida’s the rise of the creative class. Regional Science and Urban Economics35: 593–596.
Hall H (2011) Harvesting the Rural Creative Economy. Knowledge Synthesis. Kingston: Queen’s University School of Business, The Monieson Centre. Available at: ruralontarioinstitute.ca/file.aspx?id=98719b77-02be-491f-afb2-5c545a9801ce (accessed 21 July 2012).
37.
HallP (2000) Creative cities and economic development. Urban Studies37: 639–649.
38.
HekmanSJ (1983) Weber’s ideal type: A contemporary reassessment. Polity16: 119–137.
HospersG-J (2003) Creative cities in Europe. Urban competitiveness in the knowledge economy. Intereconomics38: 260–269.
41.
INTELI (2011) Creative-Based Strategies in Small and Medium-Sized Cities: Guidelines for Local Authorities. INTELI – Inteligência em Inovacäo, Centro de Inovacäo. Available at: urbact.eu/fileadmin/Projects/Creative_Clusters/documents_media/URBACTCreativeClusters_TAP_INTELI_Final.pdf (accessed 21 July 2012).
JacobsJ (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York, NY: Random House.
44.
KainulainenK (2005) Kunta ja kulttuurin talous [Local government and cultural economy], Tampere: Tampere University Press.
45.
Kasvio A and Anttiroiko A-V (eds) (2005) e-City: Analysing Efforts to Generate Local Dynamism in the City of Tampere. Tampere: Tampere University Press.
46.
KnielingJ (2004) Big projects, festivalisation and visions as strategies of urban planning in global times. Case study Metropolis Hamburg. In: EckardtFKreislP (eds) City Images and Urban Regeneration, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 169–187.
47.
Kostiainen J and Sotarauta M (2002) Finnish city reinvented: Tampere’s path from industrial to knowledge economy. Working Paper Series, MIT-IPC-02-006. Cambridge, MA: Industrial Performance Center, MIT. Available at: www.web.mit.edu/ipc/publications/pdf/02-006.pdf (accessed 6 August 2012).
48.
LandryC (2008) The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators, 2nd ed. London: Earthscan.
Lazzeretti L, Boix R and Capone F (2009) Why do creative industries cluster? An analysis of the determinants of clustering of creative industries. In: Summer Conference 2009 at Copenhagen Business School, DRUID. Available at: www2.druid.dk/conferences/viewpaper.php?id=5746&cf=32 (accessed 20 July 2012).
Markusen A and Gadwa A (2010) Creative Placemaking. A White Paper for The Mayors’ Institute on City Design, a leadership initiative of the National Endowment for the Arts in partnership with the United States Conference of Mayors and American Architectural Foundation. Markusen Economic Research Services and Metris Arts Consulting. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts. Available at: www.nea.gov/pub/CreativePlacemaking-Paper.pdf (accessed 28 July 2012).
56.
MommaasH (2004) Cultural clusters and the post-industrial city: Towards the remapping of urban cultural policy. Urban Studies41: 507–532.
57.
Monclus J and Guardia M (eds) (2006) Culture, Urbanism and Planning. Aldershot: Ashgate.
58.
MontgomeryJ (2003) Cultural quarters as mechanisms for urban regeneration. Part 1: Conceptualising cultural quarters. Planning, Practice and Research18: 293–306.
59.
MusterdSMurieA (2010) The idea of the creative or knowledge based city. In: MusterdSMurieA (eds) Making Competitive Cities, Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 17–32.
60.
Neto P and Serrano MM (2011) Governance and Creativity on Urban Regeneration Processes. CEFAGE-UE Working Paper 2011/07. Évora, Portugal: CEFAGE-UE.
61.
OakleyK (2004) Not so cool Britannia: The role of the creative industries in economic development. International Journal of Cultural Studies7: 67–77.
62.
PalmerR (2000) Cultural capital in the city. In: OoiGL (ed.) Model Cities. Urban Best PracticesVol II.Singapore: Urban Redevelopment Authority and Singapore: The Institute of Policy Studies, pp. 34–37.
63.
PeckJ (2001) Neoliberalizing states: Thin policies/hard outcomes. Progress in Human Geography25: 445–455.
64.
PeckJ (2005) Struggling with the creative class. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research29: 740–770.
65.
PolèseM (2011) The arts and local economic development: Can a strong arts presence uplift local economies? A study of 135 Canadian cities. Urban Studies49: 1811–1835.
66.
PonziniDRossiU (2010) Becoming a creative city: The entrepreneurial mayor, network politics and the promise of an urban renaissance. Urban Studies17: 1037–1057.
67.
PrattAC (2005) Cultural industries and public policy. International Journal of Cultural Policy11: 31–44.
68.
PrattAC (2008) Creative cities: The cultural industries and the creative class. Geografiska annaler: Series B – Human geography90: 107–117.
69.
Pratt AC and Jeffcutt P (eds) (2009) Creativity, Innovation and the Cultural Economy. London: Routledge.
70.
Rato B, Roldão A and Mühlhan O (2009) A Typology of Creative Cities in the World – Lessons Learned. Working Paper 2009/82. Lisbon: DINÂMIA – Centro de Estudos sobre a Mudança Socioeconómica, ISCTE. Available at: www.repositorio-iul.iscte.pt/bitstream/10071/3165/1/DINAMIA_WP_2009-82.pdf (accessed 21 July 2012).
71.
Romein A and Trip JJ (2009) Key Elements of Creative City Development: An Assessment of Local Policies in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. City Futures ‘09m 4–6 June 2009. Madrid: Delft University of Technology, OTB Research Institute for Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies. Available at: www.cityfutures2009.com/PDF/22_Romein_Arie.pdf (accessed 26 July 2012).
72.
Romein A and Trip JJ (2010) The Creative Production and Consumption Milieu. Creative City Challenge, Framework Report 6.1. Delft: Delft University of Technology, OTB Research Institute for the Built Environment.
73.
SasakiM (2010) Urban regeneration through cultural creativity and social inclusion: Rethinking creative city theory through a Japanese case study. Cities27: 3–9.
74.
SchwabB (2004) The rise of urban symbols through cultural policies. Three flagship cultural projects between internationalisation strategies and local resistance. In: EckardtFKreislP (eds) City Images and Urban Regeneration, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 211–224.
75.
ScottAJ (2006) Creative cities: Conceptual issues and policy questions. Journal of Urban Affairs28: 1–17.
76.
SepeM (2009) Creative urban regeneration between innovation, identity and sustainability. International Journal of Sustainable Development12: 144–159.
77.
SmithRWarfieldK (2008) The creative city: A matter of values. In: CookPLazzerettiL (eds) Creative Cities, Cultural Clusters and Local Development, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 287–312.
78.
StolarickKMDenstedtMDonaldB (2010) Creativity, tourism and economic development in a rural context: The case of Prince Edward County. Journal of Rural and Community Development5: 238–254.
79.
TohmoT (2005) Economic impacts of cultural events on local economies: An input-output analysis of the Kaustinen Folk Music Festival. Tourism Economics11: 431–451.
80.
TontsMGreiveS (2002) Commodification and creative destruction in the Australian rural landscape: The case of Bridgetown, Western Australia. Australian Geographical Studies40: 58–70.
81.
van HeurB (2012) Small cities and the sociospatial specificity of economic development: A heuristic approach. In: LorentzenAvan HeurB (eds) Cultural Political Economy of Small Cities, Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 17–30.
82.
VanoloA (2008) The image of the creative city: Some reflections on urban branding in Turin. Cities25: 370–382.
83.
van WindenW (2008) Urban governance in the knowledge-based economy: Challenges for different city types. Innovation: Management, Policy and Practice10: 197–210.
WardK (2003) Entrepreneurial urbanism, state restructuring and civilizing ‘New’ East Manchester. Area35: 116–127.
86.
WolfeDABramwellA (2008) Innovation, creativity and governance: Social dynamics of economic performance in city-regions. Innovation: Management, Policy and Practice10: 170–182.
87.
Wu W (2005) Dynamic cities and creative clusters. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3509, February 2005. Washington, DC: World Bank.
88.
ZimmermanJ (2008) From brew town to cool town: Neoliberalism and the creative city development strategy in Milwaukee. Cities25: 230–242.
89.
ZukinS (1995) The Cultures of Cities, Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
