Since the early 1970s, L2 syntax researchers have seriously challenged the applicability of a critical period to the acquisition of L2 syntax, reformulating this challenge in the 1990s in terms of whether postpuberty learners retain access to the principles and parameters of Universal Grammar (UG). While it seems much more likely that a critical period applies to the postpuberty acquisition of a second phonology, research in the last several decades indi cates that adult learners do have access to the phonological principles and parameters of UG. Recent work on the nature of the input required to accomplish the setting of parameters in syntax offers one possible explana tion for lack of native-like attainment in L2 phonology.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allen, G.D. and Hawkins, S.1960: Phonological rhythm: definition and development. In Yeni-Komshian, G. and Ferguson, C.A., editors, Child phonology. Vol. I. New York: Academic Press, 227—56.
2.
Archibald, J.1992: Transfer of L1 parameter settings: some empirical evidence from Polish metrics. Canadian Journal of Linguistics37, 301-39.
3.
— 1993a: Language learnability and L2 phonology: the acquisition of metrical parameters. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
4.
— 1993b: The learnability of English metrical parameters by adult Spanish speakers. International Review of Applied Linguistics31, 129-42.
5.
Bailey, N., Madden, C. and Krashen, S.1974: Is there a 'natural sequence' in adult second language learning? Language Learning24, 235-43.
6.
Berwick, R.1985: The acquisition of syntactic knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
7.
Bley-Vroman, R.1989: What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In Gass, S. and Schachter, J., editors, Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 41-68.
8.
Bley-Vroman, R., Felix, S. and Ioup, G.1988: The assessibility of Universal Grammar in adult language learning. Second Language Research4, 1-32.
9.
Broselow, E.1987: Non-obvious transfer: on predicting epenthesis errors . In Ioup, G. and Weinberger, S., editors, Interlanguage phonology. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House, 292-304.
10.
— 1988: Prosodic phonology and the acquisition of a second language . In Flynn, S. and O'Neil, W., editors, Linguistic theory in second language acquisition. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 295—308.
11.
Broselow, E. and Finer, D.1991: Parameter setting in second language phonology and syntax . Second Language Research7, 35—59.
12.
Clahsen, H. and Muysken, P.1986: The availability of Universal Grammar to adult and child learners - a study of the acquisition of German word order. Second Language Research2, 93-119.
13.
— 1989: The UG paradox in L2 acquisition. Second Language Research5,1-29.
14.
duPlessis, J., Solin, D., Travis, L. and White, L.1987: UG or not UG, that is the question: a reply to Clahsen and Muysken. Second Language Research3, 56—75.
15.
Eckman, F.1977: Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning27, 315-30.
16.
— 1981: On the naturalness of interlanguage phonological rules . Language Learning31,195—216.
17.
Eckman, F. and Iverson, G.1993: Sonority and markedness among onset clusters in the interlanguage of ESL learners. Second Language Research9, 234—52.
18.
Flege, J.E.1987: A critical period for learning to pronounce foreign languages ?Applied Linguistics8,162-77.
19.
Flynn, S.1987: A parameter-setting model of L2 acquisition. Dordrecht: Reidel.
20.
Flynn, S. and Espinal, I.1985: The head-initial/head-final parameter in adult Chinese L2 acquisition of English. Second Language Research1, 93—117.
21.
James, A.1987: The acquisition of phonological representation: a modular approach. In James, A. and Leather, J., editors, Sound patterns in second language acquisition. Dordrecht: Foris, 225-49.
22.
Kahn, D.1976: Syllable-based generalizations in English phonology. PhD dissertation, MIT.
23.
Lenneberg, E.1967: Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley.
24.
Long, M.1990: Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition12, 251-86.
25.
Major, R.1987a: A model for interlanguage phonology. In Ioup, G. and Weinberger, S., editors, Interlanguage phonology. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 101—24.
26.
— 1987b: The natural phonology of second language acquisition . In James, A. and Leather, J., editors, Sound patterns in second language acquisition. Dordrecht: Foris, 207-24.
27.
Nespor, M. and Vogel, I.1982: Prosodic domains of external sandhi rules. In van der Hulst, H. and Smith, N., editors, The structure ofphonological representations. Part I. Dordrecht: Foris, 225-55.
28.
— 1986: Prosodic phonology. Dordrecht: Foris.
29.
Pater, J.1993: Metrical parameter mis-setting in second language acquisition . Paper delivered at the Conference on Generative Approaches to Language Acquisition, Durham.
30.
Patkowski, M.1990: Age and accent in a second language. A reply to James Emil Flege. Applied Linguistics11, 73-89.
31.
Schachter, J.1988a: Second language acquisition and its relation to Universal Grammar. Applied Linguistics9, 219-35.
32.
— 1988b: On the issue of completeness in second language acquisition . Language Learning38, 93-124.
33.
Schwartz, B.D.1993: On explicit and negative data effecting and affecting competence and linguistic behaviour. Studies in Second Language Acquisition15, 147—63.
34.
Schwartz, B.D. and Tomaselli, A.1990: Some implications from an analysis of German word order . In Abraham, W., Kosmeijer, W. and Reuland, E., editors, Issues in Germanic syntax. The Hague: Mouton, 251—74.
35.
Scovel, T.1969: Foreign accents, language acquisition and cerebral dominance . Language Learning19, 245-53.
36.
— 1988: A time to speak: a psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House/Harper & Row.
37.
Selkirk, E.O.1984: The syllable. In van der Hulst, H. and Smith, N., editors, The structure of phonological representations. Part II. Dordrecht: Foris, 337-84.
38.
Snow, C.E. and Hoefnagel-Höhle, M.1982: Age differences in the pronunciation of foreign sounds. In Krashen, S., Long, M. and Scarcella, R. , editors, Child-adult differences in second language acquisition . Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 84-91.
39.
Tropf, H.1987: Sonority as a variability factor. In James, A. and Leather, J. , editors, Sound patterns in second language acquisition . Dordrecht: Foris, 173-91.
40.
Vainikka, A. and Young-Scholten, M.1992: The development of functional projections in L2 syntax. Paper presented at the Linguistic Society of America annual meeting, Philadelphia, PA.
41.
Vogel, I.1991: Prosodic phonology: second language acquisition data as evidence in theoretical phonology. In Huebner, T. and Ferguson, C.A., editors, Crosscurrents in second language acquisition and linguistic theories. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 47—65.
42.
Weinberger, S.H. forthcoming: Minimal segments in second language phonology. In James, A. and Leather, J., editors, Second language speech. The Hague, Mouton.
43.
Wexler, K. and Manzini, R.1987: Parameters and learnability in binding theory. In Roeper, T. and Williams, E., editors, Parameter setting. Dordrecht: Reidel, 41-76.
44.
White, L.1982: Grammatical theory and language acquisition. Dordrecht: Reidel.
45.
— 1985: The acquisition of parameterized grammars: subjacency in second language acquisition. Second Language Research1, 1—17.
46.
— 1989a: The principle of adjacency in second language acquisition: do learners observe the Subset Principle? In Gass, S. and Schachter, J., editors, Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 134-58.
47.
— 1989b: Universal Grammar in second language acquisition. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
48.
— forthcoming: Universal Grammar and second language acquisition: current trends and new directions. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T., editors, Handbook of language acquisition. New York: Academic Press.
49.
Young-Scholten, M.1992: The Subset Principle in interlanguage phonology: a preliminary investigation. In Leather, J. and James, A., editors, New sounds 92. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 200-17.
50.
— 1993: The acquisition of prosodic structure in a second languageTübingen: Niemeyer.
51.
— forthcoming: A new research programme for the L2 acquisition of phonology. In Jordens, P. and Lalleman, J., editors, Issues in second language acquisition: an introduction . The Hague: Mouton.
