Research on coopetition – the simultaneous occurrence of competition and cooperation among firms – is usually limited to the realm of large firms. While some research has examined the motives and outcomes of coopetition among small- and medium-sized business, little is known about how coopetition is managed among micro-firms. The French wine sector is dominated by micro-firms, among which coopetition is common. Focusing on the Pic Saint Loup area in south-eastern France, this article analyses how micro-firms manage coopetition. While we observe similarities in coopetition with respect to large firms, a distinct micro-firm coopetition mode is identified: (a) contrary to expectations, the management of coopetition is highly formalised in micro-firms; (b) as with large firms, the management of micro-firm coopetition requires a separation between competition and cooperation, but such separation occurs outside the firm – in the form of a collective structure; and (c) in contrast to large firms, small firms exhibit an increase in individual-level dimensions of coopetition with decreasing firm size. We conclude that policy should encourage coopetition among micro-firms provided that it is tailored to micro-firm specificities.
AlvarezRCrespiG (2003) Determinants of technical efficiency in small firms. Small Business Economics20(3): 233–244.
2.
AstleyWGFombrunCJ (1983) Collective strategy: Social ecology of organizational environment. Academy of Management Review8(4): 576–587.
3.
AvermaeteTViaeneJMorganEJ (2003) Determinants of innovation in small food firms. European Journal of Innovation Management6(1): 8–17.
4.
BarNirASmithKA (2002) Interfirm alliances in the small business: The role of social networks. Journal of Small Business Management40(3): 219–232.
5.
BengtssonMJohanssonM (2014) Managing coopetition to create opportunities for small firms. International Small Business Journal32(4): 401–427.
6.
BengtssonMKockS (1999) Cooperation and competition in relationships between competitors in business Networks. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing14(3): 178–190.
7.
BengtssonMKockS (2000) Coopetition in business networks–To cooperate and compete simultaneously. Industrial Marketing Management29: 411–426.
8.
BengtssonMKockS (2014) Coopetition-Quo vadis? Past accomplishments and future challenges. Industrial Marketing Management43(2): 180–188.
9.
BengtssonMErikssonJWincentJ (2010) Co-opetition dynamics–An outline for further inquiry. Competitiveness Review20(2): 194–214.
10.
BennettRJRamsdenM (2007) The contribution of business associations to SMEs: Strategy, bundling or reassurance?International Small Business Journal25(1): 49–76.
11.
BerronePGertelHGiuliodoriRet al. (2014) Determinants of performance in microenterprises: Preliminary evidence from Argentina. Journal of Small Business Management52(3): 477–500.
12.
BoeheD (2013) Collaborate at home to win abroad: How does access to local network resources influence export behavior?Journal of Small Business Management51(2): 167–182.
13.
BonelERoccoE (2007) Coopeting to survive; surviving coopetition. International Studies of Management & Organization37(2): 70–96.
14.
BounckenRKrausS (2013) Innovation in knowledge-intensive industries: The double-edged sword of coopetition. Journal of Business Research66(10): 2060–2070.
15.
BounckenRBFredrichV (2012) Coopetition: performance implications and management antecedents. International Journal of Innovation Management16(5): 12500281–125002828.
16.
BounckenRBClaußTFredrichV (2016) Product innovation through coopetition in alliances: Singular or plural governance?Industrial Marketing Management53: 77–90.
17.
BounckenRBGastJKrausSet al. (2015) Coopetition: A systematic review, synthesis, and future research directions. Review of Managerial Science9(3): 577–601.
BresserRKHarlJE (1986) Collective strategy: Vice or virtue. Academy of Management Review11(2): 408–427.
20.
CampbellDTFiskeDW (1959) Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin56: 81–105.
21.
ChenMJ (2008) Reconceptualizing the competition-cooperation relationship: A transparadox perspective. Journal of Management Inquiry17: 288–305.
22.
ChoiPGarciaRFriedrichC (2010) The drivers for collective horizontal coopetition: A case study of screwcap initiatives in the international wine industry. International Journal of Strategic Business Alliances1(3): 271–290.
23.
ClevelandWS (1985) The Elements of Graphing Data. Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth Advanced Books & Software.
24.
ColomboMGLaursenKMagnussonMet al. (2012) Introduction: Small business and networked innovation: Organizational and managerial challenges. Journal of Small Business Management50(2): 181–190.
25.
CookTDCampbellDT (1979) Quasi-experimentation: Design and Analysis Issues for Field Settings. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
26.
CurranJ (2006) Comment: ‘Specificity’ and ‘denaturing’ the small business. International Small Business Journal24(2): 205–210.
27.
CzakonW (2009) Power asymmetries, flexibility and the propensity to coopete: An empirical investigation of SMEs’ relationships with franchisors. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business8(1): 44–60.
28.
CzakonWMucha-KuśKRogalskiM (2014) Coopetition research landscape: A systematic literature review 1997–2010. Journal of Economics & Management17: 122–150.
29.
DanaL-PChanTChiaD (2008) Micro-enterprise internationalization without support: The case of Angus exports. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation9(1): 5–10.
30.
DanaL-PEtemadHWrightRW (1999) The impact of globalization on SMEs. Global Focus11(4): 93–105.
31.
DanaL-PGranataJLaschFet al. (2013) The evolution of co-opetition in the Waipara wine cluster of New-Zealand. Wine Economics and Policy2(1): 42–49.
32.
De ClercqDVoronovM (2009) Towards a practice perspective on entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial legitimacy as habitus. International Small Business Journal27(4): 395–419.
33.
De JongJPJMarsiliO (2006) The fruit flies of innovations: A taxonomy of innovative small firms. Research Policy35(2): 213–229.
34.
DenzinNK (1989) The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods (3rd edn). New York: Prentice Hall.
35.
DepeyreCDumezH (2010) The role of architectural players in coopetition: The case of the US defense industry. In: YamiSCastaldoSDagninoPet al. (eds) Co-opetition Strategy: Winning Strategies for the 21st Century. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 124–140.
36.
Direction régionale de l’alimentation, de l’agriculture et de la forêt (DRAAF) (2014) Panorama Des IAA 2014 – Région Languedoc-roussillon. Paris: Ministère de l’alimentation, de l’agriculture et de la forêt.
37.
Drakopoulu DoddSDJackSAndersonAR (2002) Scottish entrepreneurial networks in the international context. International Small Business Journal20(2): 213–219.
38.
DussaugePGarretteBMitchellW (2000) Learning from competing partners: Outcome and durations of scale and link alliances in Europe, North America and Asia. Strategic Management Journal21(2): 99–126.
39.
EikebrokkTROlsenDH (2007) An empirical investigation of competency factors affecting e-business success in European SMEs. Information & Management44: 364–383.
40.
EisenhardtKMGraebnerME (2007) Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy of Management Journal50(1): 25–32.
41.
EtemadHWrightRWDanaL-P (2001) Symbiotic international business networks: Collaboration between small and large firms. Thunderbird International Business Review43(4): 481–499.
42.
Eurostat (2011) Key Figures on European Business with a Special Feature on Smes. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
43.
FalkM (2017) Gains from horizontal collaboration among ski areas. Tourism Management60: 92–104.
44.
FernandezASLe RoyFGnyawaliDR (2014) Sources and management of tension in co-opetition case evidence from telecommunications satellites manufacturing in Europe. Industrial Marketing Management43(2): 222–235.
45.
FontanaAFreyJ (1994) Interviewing: The art of science. In: DenzinNLincolnY (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 361–376.
46.
ForsterN (1994) The analysis of company documentation. In: CasselCSymonG (eds) Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research: A Practical Guide. London: Sage, 147–166.
47.
GardetEFraihaS (2012) Coordination modes established by the hub firm of an innovation network: The case of an SME bearer. Journal of Small Business Management50(2): 216–238.
48.
GibbAA (2000) SME policy, academic research and the growth of ignorance: Mythical concepts, myths, assumptions, rituals and confusions. International Small Business Journal18(3): 13–35.
49.
GlaserBGStraussAL (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Hawthorne, CA and New York: Aldine Press.
50.
GnyawaliDRParkBJR (2009) Co-opetition and technological innovation in small and medium-sized enterprise: A multilevel conceptual model. Journal of Small Business Management47: 308–330.
51.
GnyawaliDRParkBJR (2011) Co-opetition between giants: Collaboration with competitors for technological innovation. Research Policy40(5): 650–663.
52.
GnyawaliDRHeJMadhavanR (2006) Impact of co-opetition on firm competitive behavior: An empirical examination. Journal of Management32(4): 507–530.
53.
GoodmanLA (1961) Snowball sampling. Annals of Mathematical Statistics32(1): 148–170.
54.
GronumSVerreynneM-LKastelleT (2012) The role of networks in small and medium-sized enterprise innovation and firm performance. Journal of Small Business Management50(2): 257–282.
55.
HamptonACooperSMcgowanP (2009) Female entrepreneurial networks and networking activity in technology-based ventures: An exploratory study. International Small Business Journal27(2): 193–214.
56.
HannaVWalshK (2008) Interfirm cooperation among small manufacturing firms. International Small Business Journal26(3): 299–321.
57.
HannachiMColénoF (2012) How to adequately balance between competition and cooperation? A typology of horizontal coopetition. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business17(3): 273–289.
58.
HermelPKhayatI (2011) The role of resources: Micro-firms internationalization in the French context. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development18(2): 298–310.
JackSMoultSAndersonARet al. (2010) An entrepreneurial network evolving: Pattern of change. International Small Business Journal28(4): 315–337.
61.
JaouenAGundolfK (2009) Strategic alliances between microfirms: Specific patterns in the French context. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research15(1): 48–70.
62.
JaouenALaschF (2015) A new typology of micro-firm owner-managers. International Small Business Journal33(4): 397–421.
63.
JayLSchaperM (2003) Which advisers do micro-firms use? Some Australian evidence. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development: 136–143.
64.
JickTD (1979) Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly24: 602–611.
65.
JulienPA (1993) Small businesses as a research subject: Some reflections on knowledge of small businesses and its effects on economic theory. Small Business Economics5(2): 157–167.
66.
JulienPA (1998) The State of the Art in Small Business and Entrepreneurship. Aldershot: Ashgate.
67.
KelliherFReinlL (2009) A resource-based view of micro-firm management practice. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development16(3): 521–532.
68.
KockSNisulsJSöderqvistA (2010) Co-opetition: A source of international opportunities in Finnish SMEs. Competitiveness Review20(2): 111–125.
69.
KoteyBFolkerC (2007) Employee training in SMEs: Effect of size and firm type-family and nonfamily. Journal of Small Business Management45(2): 214–238.
70.
KoteyBSladeP (2005.) Formal human resource management practices in small growing firms. Journal of Small Business Management43(1): 16–41.
71.
LasagniA (2012) How can external relationships enhance innovation in SMEs? New evidence for Europe. Journal of Small Business Management50(2): 310–339.
72.
LathaKLMurthyB (2009) The motives of small scale entrepreneurs: An exploratory study. South Asian Journal of Management16(2): 91–108.
73.
Le RoyFCzakonW (2016) Managing coopetition: The missing link between strategy and performance. Industrial Marketing Management53: 3–6.
74.
Le RoyFFernandezA-S (2015) Managing coopetitive tensions at the working-group level: The rise of the coopetitive project team. British Journal of Management26(4): 671–688.
75.
LeBrasseurRBlancoHDodgeJ (2006) Growth intentions of owner-managers of young microfirms. New England Journal of Entrepreneurship9(1): 9–19.
76.
LechnerCDowlingM (2003) Firm networks: External relationships as sources for the growth and competitiveness of entrepreneurial firms. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development15(1): 1–26.
77.
LechnerCLeyronasC (2009) Small-business group formation as an entrepreneurial development model. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice33(3): 645–667.
78.
LechnerCLeyronasC (2012) The competitive advantage of cluster firms: the priority of regional network position over extra-regional networks–A study of a French high-tech cluster. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development24(5–6): 457–473.
79.
LechnerCSoppeBDowlingM (2016) Vertical coopetition and the sales growth of young and small firms. Journal of Small Business Management54(2): 67–84.
80.
LeeHKellyDLeeJet al. (2012) SME survival: The impact of internationalization, technology resources, and alliances. Journal of Small Business Management50(1): 1–19.
81.
LevyMLoebbeckeCPowellP (2003) SMEs, co-opetition and knowledge sharing: The role of information systems. European Journal of Information Systems12(1): 3–17.
82.
LiYLiuYLiuH (2011) Co-opetition, distributor’s entrepreneurial orientation and manufacturer’s knowledge acquisition: Evidence from China. Journal of Operations Management29: 128–142.
83.
Liberman-YaconiLHooperTHutchingsK (2010) Toward a model of understanding strategic decision-making in micro-firms: Exploring the Australian information technology sector. Journal of Small Business Management48(1): 70–95.
LindströmTPolsaP (2016) Coopetition close to the customer: A case study of a small business network. Industrial Marketing Management53: 207–215.
86.
LockettNJackSLartyJ (2013) Motivations and challenges of network formation: Entrepreneur and intermediary perspectives. International Small Business Journal31(8): 866–889.
87.
LuoXSlotegraafRJPanX (2006) Cross-functional ‘coopetition’: The simultaneous role of cooperation and competition within firms. Journal of Marketing70(2): 67–80.
88.
LuoY (2007) A coopetition perspective of global competition. Journal of World Business42(2): 129–144.
89.
McAdamMMcAdamRDunnAet al. (2014) Development of small and medium-sized enterprise horizontal innovation networks: UK agri-food sector study. International Small Business Journal32(7): 830–853.
90.
MadhavanRGnyawaliDRHeJ (2004) Two’s company, three’s a crowd? Triads in cooperative-competitive networks. Academy of Management Journal47(6): 918–927.
91.
MarckettiSNiehmLFuloriaR (2006) An exploratory study of lifestyle entrepreneurship and its relationship to life quality. Family & Consumer Sciences Research Journal34(3): 241–259.
92.
MarcotteCNiosiJ (2005) Small and medium-sized enterprises involved in technology transfer to China: What do their partners learn?International Small Business Journal23(1): 27–47.
93.
Martin-RiosCErhardtN (2016) Small business activity and knowledge exchange in informal interfirm networks. International Small Business Journal35(3): 285–305.
94.
MesseghemK (2003) Strategic entrepreneurship and managerial activities in SMEs. International Small Business Journal21(2): 197–211.
95.
MilesMBHubermanAM (2003) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
96.
MillerNJBesserTMalsheA (2007) Strategic networking among small businesses in small US communities. International Small Business Journal25(6): 631–665.
97.
MintzbergH (1979) The Structuring of Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
98.
MorrisHMKoçakAÖzerA (2007) Coopetition as a small business strategy: Implications for performance. Journal of Small Business Strategy18(1): 35–54.
99.
MorrisonABreenJAliS (2003) Small business growth: Intention, ability, and opportunity. Journal of Small Business Management41(4): 417–425.
100.
NadinSCassellC (2007) New deal for old? Exploring the psychological contract in a small firm environment. International Small Business Journal25(4): 417–443.
101.
NakosGBrouthersKDDimitratosP (2014) International alliances with competitors and non-competitors: The disparate impact on SME international performance. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal8(2): 167–182.
102.
NietoMJSantamariaL (2010) Technological collaboration: Bridging the innovation gap between small and large firms. Journal of Small Business Management48(1): 44–69.
103.
OliverAL (2004) On the duality of competition and collaboration: Network-based knowledge relations in the biotechnology industry. Scandinavian Journal of Management20: 151–171.
OshriIWeberC (2006) Cooperation and competition standards-setting activities in the digitization era: The case of wireless information devices. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management18(2): 265–283.
106.
ParkBJRSrivastavaMKGnyawaliDR (2014) Walking the tight rope of coopetition: Impact of competition and cooperation intensities and balance on firm innovation performance. Industrial Marketing Management43: 210–224.
107.
PattonMQ (2000) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
108.
Pellegrin-BoucherELe RoyFGurauC (2013) Coopetitive strategies in the ICT sector: Typology and stability. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management25(1): 71–89.
109.
PorterME (1998) Clusters and the new economics of competition. Harvard Business Review76(6): 77–90.
110.
Quintana-GarcíaCBenavides-VelascoCA (2004) Cooperation, competition, and innovative capability: A panel data of European dedicated biotechnology firms. Technovation24(12): 927–938.
111.
Raza-UllahTBengtssonMKochS (2014) The coopetition paradox and tension in coopetition at multiple levels. Industrial Marketing Management43: 189–198.
112.
RitalaP (2012) Coopetition strategy–when is it successful? Empirical evidence on innovation and market performance. British Journal of Management23(3): 307–324.
113.
RitalaPHurmelinna-LaukkanenP (2009) What’s in for me? Creating and appropriate value in innovation-relate coopetition. Technovation29(12): 819–828.
114.
RitalaPGolnamAWegmannA (2014) Coopetition-based business models: The case of Amazon.com. Industrial Marketing Management43(2): 236–249.
115.
RobertFMarquèsPLe RoyF (2009) Coopetition between SMEs: An empirical study of French professional football. International Journal of Entrepreneurship & Small Business8(1): 23–43.
116.
SchaperMTCampoMImukukaJK (2005) The training and management development needs of micro-firms. Training & Management Development Methods19(2): 13–22.
117.
ShawE (2006) Small firm networking. International Small Business Journal24(1): 5–29.
118.
SmithAGRobbinsAE (1982) Structured ethnography. American Behavioral Scientist26(1): 45–61.
119.
StreetCTCameronA-F (2007) External relationships and the small business: A review of small business alliance and network research. Journal of Small Business Management45(2): 239–266.
120.
ThukralISvon EhrJWalshSet al. (2008) Entrepreneurship, emerging technologies, emerging markets. International Small Business Journal26(1): 101–116.
121.
TidströmA (2009) The causes of conflict when small- and medium-sized competitors cooperate. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business8(1): 74–91.
122.
TidströmA (2014) Managing tensions in coopetition. Industrial Marketing Management43(2): 261–271.
123.
TorrèsOJulienPA (2005) Specificity and denaturing of small business. International Small Business Journal23(4): 355–377.
124.
TregearA (2005) Lifestyle, growth, or community involvement? The balance of goals of UK artisan food producers. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development17(1): 1–15.
125.
TuCHwangS-NWongJ-Y (2014) How does cooperation affect innovation in micro-enterprises. Management Decision52(8): 1390–1409.
126.
UlubaşoğluMAAkdişMKökSB (2009) Internationalization and alliance formation: Evidence from Turkish SMEs. International Small Business Journal27(3): 337–361.
127.
Van GilsAZwartPS (2009) Alliance formation motives in SMEs: An explorative conjoint analysis study. International Small Business Journal27(1): 5–37.
128.
VanyushynVHolmlundMKockS (2009) Cooperation with competitors and internationalization: Evidence from the west coast of Finland. Journal of Euromarketing18(2): 89–100.
129.
VoleryTMazzarolT (2015) The evolution of the small business and entrepreneurship field: A bibliometric investigation of articles published in the International Small Business Journal. International Small Business Journal33(4): 374–396.
130.
WalkerEBrownA (2004) What success factors are important to small business owners?International Small Business Journal22(6): 577–594.
131.
WalleyK (2007) Coopetition. International Studies of Management & Organization37(2): 11–31.
132.
WelshJAWhiteJF (1981) A small business is not a little big business. Harvard Business Review59: 18–32.
133.
WennekersSThurikAR (1999) Linking entrepreneurship and economic growth. Small Business Economics13(1): 27–56.
134.
WrightRWDanaLP (2003) Changing paradigms of international entrepreneurship strategy. Journal of International Entrepreneurship1(1): 135–152.
135.
YamiSCastaldoSDagninoGBet al. (2010) Coopetition: Winning Strategies for the 21st Century. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
136.
ZhangJ (2010) The problems of using social networks in entrepreneurial resource acquisition. International Small Business Journal28(4): 338–361.
137.
ZheliazkovGZaimovaDGenchevEet al. (2015) Cluster development in rural areas. Economics of Agriculture62(1): 73–93.
