Throughout the 20th century multiple discourses of the nature of enterprise and the entrepreneur have developed. In this article, we trace these discourses and perspectives as a backdrop to understanding social and economic entrepreneurship. The article considers the nature of social enterprise and whether,indeed how, it might be construed as a form of entrepreneurship. It is argued that in the past social enterprises have been modelled on tenets of ‘not-for-profit’ charitable organizations that have attracted human and social capital with pro-social, community-spirited motives, and have engendered survival strategies premised on grant dependency. In the longer term, we argue, social enterprises should be self-sustaining and therefore entrepreneurial in their endeavours.From these premises, we suggest that the definition of entrepreneurship might be modified to include the creation of ‘social and economic value’ and may thus be applied to both private, entrepreneurial ventures as well as social enterprises.
Aldrich, H. and Zimmer, C. (1986) ‘Entrepreneurship through Social Networks’, in D.Sexton and R.Smilor (eds) The Art and Science of Entrepreneurship, pp 3–23. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger .
2.
Bird, B. (1988) ‘Implementing Entrepreneurial Ideas: The Case for Intention’ , Academy of Management Review13(3): 442–453 .
3.
Bird, B. (1995) ‘Toward a Theory of Entrepreneurial Competency’, in J. A. Katz and R. H. Brockhaus, Sr (eds) Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, pp. 51–72. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press .
4.
Birley, S. (1985) ‘The Role of Networks in the Entrepreneurial Process’ , Journal of Business Venturing1(1): 107–117 .
5.
Blackburn, R. and Curran, J. (1993) ‘In Search of Spatial Differences: Evidence from a Study of Small Service Sector Enterprises’, in J. Curran and D. J. Storey (eds) Small Firms in Urban and Rural Locations. London: Routledge .
6.
Bouchikhi, H. (1993) ‘A Constructivist Framework for Understanding Entrepreneurial Performance’ , Organisational Studies14(4): 551–569 .
7.
Brockhaus, R. (1982) ‘The Psychology of the Entrepreneur’, in C. A. Kent , D. L. Sexton and K. H. Vesper (eds) Encyclopaedia of Entrepreneurship, pp. 39–71. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall .
8.
Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. (1979) Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis. London: Heinemann .
9.
Bygrave, W. D. (1995) ‘Mom-and-pops, High Potential Start Ups, and Intrapreneurship: Are They Part of the Same Entrepreneurship Paradigm?’, in J. A. Katz and R. H. Brockhaus, Sr (eds) Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, pp. 1–20. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press .
10.
Caird, S. (1990) ‘Self-assessment of Participants on Enterprise Training’ , British Journal of Education and Work4(3): 63–80 .
11.
Caird, S. (1993) ‘What do Psychology Tests Suggest about Entrepreneurs?’ , Journal of Managerial Psychology8(6): 11–20 .
12.
Carland, J. W. , Hoy,F. , Boulton, W. R. and Carland, J. A. C. (1984) ‘Differentiating Entrepreneurs from Small Business Owners: A Conceptualization’ , Academy of Management Review9(2): 354–359 .
13.
Casson, M. (1982) The Entrepreneur: An Economic Theory. Oxford: Martin Robertson .
14.
Chell, E. (1985) ‘The Entrepreneurial Personality: A Few Ghosts Laid to Rest?’ , International Small Business Journal3(3): 43–54 .
15.
Chell, E. (2000) ‘Towards Researching the “Opportunistic Entrepreneur”: A Social Constructionist Approach & Research Agenda’ ,European Journal of Work and Organisational Psychology9(1): 63–80 .
16.
Chell, E. and Baines, S. (2000) ‘Networking, Entrepreneurship and Micro-business Behaviour’ , Entrepreneurship and Regional Development12(3): 195–205 .
17.
Chell, E. , Haworth J. and Brearley, S. (1991) The Entrepreneurial Personality: Concepts, Cases, and Categories. London: Routledge .
18.
Chell, E. and Pittaway, L. (1998) ‘The Social Construction of Entrepreneurship’ , paper presented at the ISBA conference, Durham University, November.
19.
Chell, E. and Rhodes, H. (1999) ‘The Development of a Methodology for Researching Vertical Relations in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises’, in R. Thorpe and R. Humphreys (eds) British Academy of Management Proceedings, pp. 170–186. Manchester: Manchester Metropolitan University .
20.
CBI (1986) Management Training for Small Businesses. London: CBI .
21.
CBI (1993) Finance for Growth: Meeting the Financial Needs of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises. London: CBI .
22.
Dees, J. G. (1998) ‘Enterprising Nonprofits’ , Harvard Business Review76(Jan.-Feb.): 55–67 .
23.
DTI (1998) ‘Our Competitive Future: Building the Knowledge Driven Economy’, Cmnd 4176. London: HMSO .
24.
DTI (2002) ‘Social Enterprise: A Strategy for Success’, 6802/4K/10/03. URN 02/1054. London: HMSO .
25.
Endler, N. S. (1983) ‘Interactionism: A Personality Model, but not yet a Theory’, in M. M. Page (ed.) Personality: Current Theory and Research, 1982: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, pp. 155–200. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press .
26.
Fairclough, N. (1991) ‘What Might We Mean by “Enterprise Discourse”’, in R. Keat and N. Abercrombie (eds) Enterprise Culture, pp. 38–57. London: Routledge .
27.
Fairclough, N (1995) Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Longman .
28.
Foster, W. and Bradach, J. (2005) ‘Should Nonprofits Seek Profi ts?’ , Harvard Business Review83(February): 92–100 .
29.
Gaglio, C. M. (1997) ‘Opportunity Identification: Review, Critique and Suggested Research Directions’, in J. A. Katz (ed.) Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, Vol. 3: 139–202. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press .
30.
Gaglio, C. M. (2004) ‘The Role of Mental Simulations and Counterfactual Thinking in the Opportunity Identification Process’ , Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice28(1): 533–552 .
31.
Gartner, W. (1988) ‘“Who is an Entrepreneur?” is the Wrong Question’ , Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice13(4): 47–68 .
32.
Gibb, Alan A. (1993) ‘Enterprise Culture and Education:Understanding Enterprise Education and its Links with Small Business, Entrepreneurship and Wider Social Goals’ , International Small Business Journal11(3): 11–34 .
33.
Giddens, A. (1984) The Constitution of Society. Cambridge: Polity Press .
34.
Granovetter, M. (1973) ‘The Strength of Weak Ties’ , American Journal of Sociology78(6): 1360–1380 .
35.
Granovetter, M. (1985) ‘Economic Action and Sociological Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness’ , American Journal of Sociology91(3): 481–510 .
36.
Grant, P. and Perren, L. (2002) ‘Small Business and Entrepreneurship Research: Meta-theories, Paradigms and Prejudices’ , International Small Business Journal20(2): 185–211 .
37.
Gray, C. (1998) Enterprise and Culture. London: Routledge .
38.
Hampson, S. E. (1982) The Construction of Personality. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul .
39.
Hart, M. , Stevenson, H. and Dial, J. (1995) ‘Entrepreneurship: A Defi nition Revisited’, in W. D. Bygrave , B. J. Bird , S. Birley , N. C. Churchill , M. Hay , R. H. Keeley and W. E. Wetzel, Jr (eds) Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, pp. 75–89. Babson Park, MA: Centre for Entrepreneurial Studies, Babson College .
40.
Hills, G. (1995) ‘Opportunity Recognition by Successful Entrepreneurs: A Pilot Study’, in W. D. Bygrave , B. J. Bird , S. Birley , N. C. Churchill , M. Hay , R. H. Keeley and W. E. Wetzel (eds) Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research. Wellesley, MA: Babson College .
41.
Kent, C. A. and Anderson, L. P. (2003) ‘Social Capital, Social Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurship Education’, in M. L. Kourilsky and W. B. Walstad (eds) Social Entrepreneurship, pp. 27–45. Birmingham and Dublin: Senate Hall .
42.
Kilby, P. M. (ed.) (1971) Entrepreneurship and Economic Development. New York: Macmillan .
43.
Kirzner, I. (1979) Perception, Opportunity and Profit, pp. 273–276. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
44.
Kirzner, I. M. (1982) ‘The Theory of Entrepreneurship in Economic Growth’, in C. A. Kent , D. L. Sexton and K. H. Vesper (eds) Encyclopaedia of Entrepreneurship. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall .
45.
Kirzner, I. (1985) Discovery and the Capitalist Process. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
46.
Krueger, N. F. and Carsrud, A. L. (1993) ‘Entrepreneurial Intentions: Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour’ , Entrepreneurship and Regional Development5(4): 315–330 .
47.
Kwiatkowski, S. (2004) ‘Social and Intellectual Dimensions of Entrepreneurship’ , Higher Education in Europe29(2): 205–220 .
48.
McClelland, D. C. (1961) The Achieving Society. New York: Van Nostrand .
49.
Martin, J and Sugarman, J (1996) ‘Bridging Social Constructionism and Cognitive Constructivism: A Psychology of Human Possibility and Constraint’ , Journal of Mind and Behaviour17(4): 291–320 .
50.
Midland Bank (1993) The Changing Financial Requirements of Smaller Companies. London: Midland Bank .
51.
Mischel, W. (1973) ‘Towards a Cognitive Social Learning Reconceptualisation of Personality’ , Psychological Review80(4): 252–283 .
52.
Morris, P. (1991) ‘Freeing the Spirit of Enterprise: The Genesis and Development of the Concept of Enterprise Culture’, in R. Keat and N. Abercrombie (eds) Enterprise Culture, pp. 21–37. London: Routledge .
53.
Naffziger, D. W. (1995) ‘Entrepreneurship: A Person-based Approach’, in J. A. Katz and R. H. Brockhaus, Sr (eds) Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, pp. 21–50. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press .
54.
Pearce, J. (1994) ‘Enterprise with a Social Purpose’ , Town and Country Planning63(3): 84–85 .
55.
Pittaway, L. (2000) ‘The Social Construction of Entrepreneurial Behaviour’, PhD thesis, School of Management, Newcastle University.
56.
Ritchie, J. (1991) ‘Enterprise Culture: A Frame Analysis’, in R. Burrows (ed.) Deciphering the Enterprise Culture, pp. 17–35. London: Routledge .
57.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1934) The Theory of Economic Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
58.
Selden, R. (1991) ‘The Rhetoric of Enterprise’, in R. Keat and N. Abercrombie (eds) Enterprise Culture, pp. 58–71. London: Routledge .
59.
Sexton, D.L. (1987) ‘Advancing Small Business Research: Utilizing Research from other Areas’ , American Journal of Small Business11(3): 25–30 .
60.
Shackle, G. L. S. (1979) Imagination and the Nature of Choice. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press .
61.
Shaver, K. G. and Scott, L. R. (1991) ‘Person,Process,Choice: The Psychology of New Venture Creation’ , Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice16(2): 23–45 .
62.
Small Business Bureau (1993) Enhanced Loan Guarantee Scheme. London: Small Business Bureau .
63.
Smith, N. R. (1967) The Entrepreneur and His Firm: The Relationship between Type of Man and Type of Company. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press .
64.
Southern, A. (2000) ‘The Social and Cultural World of Enterprise’, in D. Jones-Evans and S. Carter (eds) Enterprise and Small Business: Principles, Practice and Policy, pp. 78–94. Harlow: Pearson Education .
65.
Southern, A. (2001) ‘What Matters is what Works?: The Management of Regeneration’ , Local Economy16(4): 264–271 .
66.
Stevenson, H. H. and Jarillo, J. C. (1990) ‘A Paradigm of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial Management’ , Strategic Management Journal11(Summer): 17–27 .
67.
Storey, D. (1994) Understanding the Small Business Sector. London: Routledge .
68.
Thornton, P. (1999) ‘The Sociology of Entrepreneurship’ , Annual Review of Sociology25: 19–46 .
69.
Tracey, P. , Phillips, N. and Haugh, H. (2004) From Isolated to Integrated: Community Enterprise as an Opportunity for Good Corporate Citizenship. Cambridge: Judge Institute of Management Studies .
70.
Tranfield, D. and Starkey, K. (1998) ‘The Nature, Social Organisation and Promotion of Management Research: Towards Policy’ , British Journal of Management9(4): 341–353 .
71.
Weick, K. E. (1969) The Social Psychology of Organizing. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley .
72.
Weick, K. E. (1989) ‘Theory Construction as Disciplined Imagination’ , Academy of Management Review14(4): 516–531 .
