Although research on young learners’ (YL) second language (L2) proficiency gains is on the rise, few studies have investigated YLs’ language progression in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context from a longitudinal perspective and the effects of background variables on their learning outcomes. This current study examined YL’s English proficiency gains over 6 months. It further investigated how the gains in proficiency were related to the learners’ educational context and background variables. In total, 110 YLs from three distinct educational settings in Mexico took the TOEFL® Primary tests at the beginning and the end of 6 months. They completed a set of background questionnaires at the start, midpoint, and end of the study. Results showed that the learners in the advantaged background with varying resources made significant gains in speaking proficiency throughout the 6 months, while those with limited resources did not. Also, educational context predicted learners’ proficiency gains over time, and low-proficiency learners exhibited more improvement than high-proficiency learners. The findings offer important implications to school administrators and testing agencies.
BarkaouiK. (2019). Examining sources of variability in repeaters’ L2 writing scores: The case of the PTE Academic writing section. Language Testing, 36(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532217750692
Canga-AlonsoA. (2015). Receptive vocabulary of CLIL and Non-CLIL primary and secondary school learners. Complutense Journal of English Studies, 23, 59–77.
4.
ChoY.BloodI. A. (2020). An analysis of TOEFL® Primary™ repeaters: How much score change occurs?Language Testing, 37(4), 503–522. https://doi.org//10.1177/0265532220927751
5.
CreswellJ. W.Plano ClarkV. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE.
6.
De WildeV.BrysbaertM.EyckmansJ. (2020). Learning English through out-of-school exposure: Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(1), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001062
7.
De WildeV.BrysbaertM.EyckmansJ. (2021). Young learners’ L2 English after the onset of instruction: Longitudinal development of L2 proficiency and the role of individual differences. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(3), 439–453. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000747
EllisN. C. (2002). Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 143–188. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263102002024
10.
FieldA.MilesJ.FieldZ. (2012). Discovering statistics using R. SAGE.
11.
FreedB. F.DeweyD. P.SegalowitzN. S.HalterR. H. (2004). The language contact profile. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26(2), 349–356.
GorisJ.DenessenE.VerhoevenL. (2013). Effects of the content and language integrated learning approach to EFL teaching: A comparative study. Written Language & Literacy, 16(2), 186–207. https://doi.org/10.1075/wll.16.2.03gor
14.
GreenA. (2005). EAP study recommendations and score gains on the IELTS academic writing test. Assessing Writing, 10(1), 44–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2005.02.002
15.
GuL.LockwoodJ.PowersD. E. (2015). Evaluating the TOEFL Junior® Standard test as a measure of progress for young English language learners (Research report no. RR-15-22). Educational Testing Service. https://doi.org/10.1002/ets2.12064
16.
GuL.SoY. (2017). Strategies used by young English learners in an assessment context. In WolfM. K.ButlerY.G. (Eds.), English language proficiency assessments for young learners (pp. 118–135). Routledge.
17.
HuntM. (2011). Learners’ perceptions of their experiences of learning subject content through a foreign language. Educational Review, 63(3), 365–378.
18.
KangO.AhnH.YawK.ChungS.-Y. (2021). Investigation of relationship among learner background, linguistics progression, and score gain on IELTS (IELTS research reports online series, no.1). British Council, Cambridge Assessment English, and IDP: IELTS Australia. https://www.ielts.org/teaching-and-research/research-reports.
19.
KimW. G.GarcíaS. B. (2014). Long-term English language learners’ perceptions of their language and academic learning experiences. Remedial and Special Education, 35(5), 300–312.
20.
LantolfJ.PoehnerM.ThorneS. L. (2020). Sociocultural theory and second language development. In VanPattenB.KeatingG.WulffS. (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 207–226). Routledge.
21.
LázaroA. (2012). Faster and further morphosyntactic development of CLIL vs. EFL Basque-Spanish bilinguals learning English in high-school. International Journal of English Studies, 12(1), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.6018/ijes.12.1.125621
22.
LeeJ. H.LeeH.LoY. Y. (2023). Effects of EMI-CLIL on secondary-level students’ English learning: A multilevel meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 13(2), 317–345.
23.
LoewenS.SatoM. (2024). A practical guide to second language teaching and learning. Cambridge University Press.
24.
MuñozC. (2011). Input and long-term effects of starting age in foreign language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 49, 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.2011.006
25.
MuñozC. (2014). Contrasting effects of starting age and input on the oral performance of foreign language learners. Applied Linguistics, 35, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu024
26.
NikolovM. (2016). Trends, issues, and challenges in assessing young language learners. In NikolovM. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 1–18). Springer.
27.
PlonskyL.OswaldF. L. (2014). How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64(4), 878–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12079
28.
Ramírez RomeroJ. L.SayerP.Pamplón IrigoyenE. N. (2014). English language teaching in public primary schools in Mexico: The practices and challenges of implementing a national language education program. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 27(8), 1020–1043. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2014.924638
29.
Timpe-LaughlinV.ChoY. (2021). Reflecting on assessing young foreign language learners. Language Testing, 38(3), 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532221998264
30.
WigfieldA.EcclesJ. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
31.
WolfM. K. (2024). Assessment of young language learners. In AntonyJ. K. (Eds.), The concise companion to language assessment (pp. 312–325). Wiley-Blackwell.
32.
WolfM. K.ButlerY. G. (2017). An overview of English language proficiency assessments for young learners. In WolfM. K.ButlerY. G. (Eds.), English language proficiency assessments for young learners (pp. 3–21). Routledge.
