The present study had two goals: first, to determine whether neediness and self-criticism are associated with distinct marital environments and, second, to evaluate two pathways by which marital environments may be related to personality and depressive symptoms. Personality vulnerability may be more strongly associated with depressive symptoms when the spouse’s behavior matches the vulnerability (i.e. a needy person’s spouse is emotionally distant). Alternatively, spousal behavior may elevate levels of neediness or self-criticism, which then increases depressive symptoms. We tested these alternatives in a sample of 64 couples recruited from the community. Among men, neediness was associated with depressive symptoms only if the marriage lacked intimacy. Self-criticism in both sexes and neediness in women were linked to the interpersonal context in a different manner: self-critics tended to have partners who have many complaints about them, and needy women tended to have partners who report low levels of marital intimacy. These results demonstrate that, to some extent, an individual’s self-criticism or neediness may be a realistic response to a distressing inter-personal context.
Aiken, L. S. , & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2.
Alden, L. E. , & Bieling, P. J. (1996). Interpersonal convergence of personality constructs in dynamic and cognitive models of depression. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 60–75.
3.
Andrews, J. (1989). Psychotherapy of depression: a self-confirmation model. Psychological Review, 96, 576–607.
4.
Aube, J. , & Whiffen, V. E. (1996). Depressive styles and social acuity: further evidence for distinct interpersonal correlates of dependency and self-criticism. Communication Research, 23, 407–424.
5.
Baron, M. R. , & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (6), 1173–1182.
6.
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Harrison, R. P., & Emery, G. (1983). Development of the sociotropy–autonomy scale: a measure of personality factors in psychopathology. Unpublished manuscript.
7.
Beck, A. T. , Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford.
8.
Beck, A. T. , Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988) Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 77–100.
9.
Blatt, S. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,29, 107–157.
10.
Blatt, S. , D’Afflitti, J., & Quinlan, D. (1976). Experiences of depression in young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 65, 383–389.
11.
Blatt, S. , Quinlan, D., Chevron, E., McDonald, D., & Zuroff, D. (1982). Dependency and self-criticism: psychological dimensions of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 50, 113–124.
12.
Blatt, S. , & Zuroff, D. (1992). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition: two prototypes for depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 527–562.
13.
Blishen, B. , Carroll, W., & Moore, C. (1987) The 1981 socioeconomic index for occupations in Canada, Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 24, 467–488.
14.
Bornstein, R. F. (1992). The dependent personality: developmental, social and clinical perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 3–23.
15.
Brown, G. W. , & Harris, T. O. (1978). The social origins of depression. New York: Free Press.
16.
Coiro, M. J. , & Gottesman, I. I. (1996). The diathesis and/or stressor role of expressed emotion in affective illness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 3, 310–322.
17.
Coyne, J. (1994). Self-reported distress: analog or ersatz depression?Psychological Bulletin, 116, 29–45.
18.
Coyne, J. , & Whiffen, V. (1995). Issues in personality as diathesis for depression: the case of sociotropy/dependency and autonomy/self-criticism. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 358–378.
19.
Dindia, K. , & Allen, M. (1992). Sex differences in self-disclosure: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 106–124.
20.
Fichman, L. , Koestner, R., & Zuroff, D. C. (1994). Depressive styles in adolescence: assessment, relation to social functioning, and developmental trends. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23, 315–330.
21.
Fruzzetti, A. E. (1996). Causes and consequences: individual distress in the context of couple interactions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1192–1201.
22.
Gotlib, I. H. , & Hammen, C. L. (1992). Psychological aspects of depression: toward a cognitive interpersonal integration. Chichester: Wiley.
23.
Gotlib, I. H. , & Hooley, J. M. (1988). Depression and marital distress: current status and future directions. In S. Duck (Ed.), Handbook of personal relationships: theory, research and interventions (pp. 543–580). Chichester: Wiley.
24.
Gotlib, I. H. , & Whiffen, V. E. (1991). The interpersonal context of depression: implications for theory and research. In W. Jones & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 3, pp. 177–206). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
25.
Gove, W. R. (1972). The relationship between sex roles, marital status, and mental illness. Social Forces, 51, 34–44.
26.
Jack, D. (1991). Silencing the self. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
27.
Johnson, S. (1996). Creating connection: The practice of emotionally focused marital therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
28.
Mead, D. , Vatcher, G., Wyne, B., & Roberts, S. (1990). The Comprehensive Areas of Change Questionnaire: assessing couples’ presenting complaints. American Journal of Family Therapy, 18, 66–79.
29.
Miller, R. , & Lefcourt, H. (1982). The assessment of social intimacy. Journal of Personality Assessment, 46, 514–518.
30.
Riley, W. T. , & McCranie, E. W. (1990). The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: validity and psychological correlates in a clinical sample. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 523–533.
31.
Rude, S. S. , & Burnham, B. L. (1995). Connectedness and neediness: factors of the DEQ and SAS Dependency scales. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19, 323–340.
32.
Safran, J. D. , & Segal, Z. (1990). Interpersonal process in cognitive therapy. New York: Basic Books.
33.
Whiffen, V. , Aube, J., Thompson, J., & Campbell, T.L. (in press). Attachment beliefs and interpersonal contexts associated with dependency and self-criticism. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology.
34.
Whiffen, V. E., Kallos-Lilly, A. V., & MacDonald, B. J. (1998). Depression and attachment in couples. Manuscript submitted for publication.
35.
Zuroff, D. C. (1994). Depressive personality styles and the five-factor model of personality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 63, 453–472.
36.
Zuroff, D. C. , & Fitzpatrick, D. K. (1995). Depressive personality styles: implications for adult attachment. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 253–265.
37.
Zuroff, D. , Moskowitz, D., Wielgus, M., Powers, T., & Franko, D. (1983). Construct validity of the Dependency and Self-criticism scales of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality, 17, 226–241.
38.
Zuroff, D. C. , Stotland, S., Sweetman, E., Craig, J. A., & Koestner, R. (1995). Dependency, self-criticism and social interactions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 543–553.
