Parent-child separation due to internal migration is prevalent in China. However, few studies have focused on the associations between different characteristics of parent-child separation and children’s involvement in bullying. We conducted a cross-sectional study among 2,355 fifth-to eighth-grade students in China, using self-reported questionnaires to investigate the associations between children’s bullying involvement (i.e., bullies, victims, bully-victims) and different characteristics of parent-child separation resulting from parental migration. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to explore these associations. Among all respondents, 17.3% reported being victims of bullying, 3.8% reported being bullies, and 2.7% reported being bully-victims. Compared to children with no left-behind experiences, those with current left-behind experiences were more likely to be victims and bully-victims. Children left behind by parent(s) at the age of three years or younger were more likely to be victims (aOR = 1.66, 95% CI [1.22, 2.25], p = .001), bullies (aOR = 1.88, 95% CI [1.02, 3.52]), and bully-victims (aOR = 2.17, 95% CI [1.04, 4.71]). Children left behind for seven years or longer were more likely to be victims (aOR = 1.49, 95% CI [1.12, 2.00], p = .007), bullies (aOR = 2.03, 95% CI [1.15, 3.69]), and bully-victims (aOR = 2.13, 95% CI [1.06, 4.50]). The identified characteristics of parent-child separation associated with bullying involvement hold implications for parental decisions regarding internal migration, interventions, and policymaking for preventing bullying among left-behind children.
BayraktarF.MachackovaH.DedkovaL.CernaA.SevcikovaA. (2015). Cyberbullying: The discriminant factors among cyberbullies, cybervictims, and cyberbully-victims in a Czech adolescent sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(18), 3192–3216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514555006
4.
BossP.BryantC. M.ManciniJ. A. (2016). Family stress management: A contextual approach (3rd ed.). Sage.
5.
ChanH. C. O.WongD. S. W. (2015). The overlap between school bullying perpetration and victimization: Assessing the psychological, familial, and school factors of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(11), 3224–3234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0125-7
6.
ChenM. T.ChanK. L. (2016). Parental absence, child victimization, and psychological well-being in rural China. Child Abuse & Neglect, 59, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.07.009
7.
ChenQ. Q.LoC. K.ZhuY. H.CheungA.ChanK. L.IpP. (2018). Family poly-victimization and cyberbullying among adolescents in a Chinese school sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 77, 180–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.015
8.
ChenQ. Q.ZhuY. H.ChuiW. H. (2021). A meta-analysis on effects of parenting programs on bullying prevention. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(5), 1209–1220. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020915619
Committee on the Biological and Psychosocial Effects of Peer Victimization: Lessons for Bullying Prevention, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, . . . National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016) The national Academies collection: Reports funded by national institutes of health. Preventing bullying through science, policy, and practice. RivaraF.Le MenestrelS. (Eds.). National Academies Press (US).
11.
CookC. R.WilliamsK. R.GuerraN. G.KimT. E.SadekS. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020149
12.
CroftC.BeckettC.RutterM.CastleJ.ColvertE.GroothuesC.HawkinsA.KreppnerJ.StevensS. E.Sonuga-BarkeE. J. S.Sonuga-BarkeE. J. (2007). Early adolescent outcomes of institutionally-deprived and non-deprived adoptees. II: Language as a protective factor and a vulnerable outcome. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 48(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01689.x
13.
DawsonG.AshmanS. B.CarverL. J. (2000). The role of early experience in shaping behavioral and brain development and its implications for social policy. Development and Psychopathology, 12(4), 695–712. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579400004089
14.
D'OnofrioB.EmeryR. (2019). Parental divorce or separation and children’s mental health. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 18(1), 100–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20590
15.
DuanC. R.LaiM. H.QinM. (2017). Research on the changing trends of left-behind children in rural my country since the 21st century. Springer.
16.
DuncanG. J.MagnusonK.Votruba-DrzalE. (2014). Boosting family income to promote child development. Future of Children, 24(1), 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2014.0008
17.
EidenR. D.OstrovJ. M.ColderC. R.LeonardK. E.EdwardsE. P.Orrange-TorchiaT. (2010). Parent alcohol problems and peer bullying and victimization: Child gender and toddler attachment security as moderators. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 39(3), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374411003691768
EspelageD. L.BosworthK.SimonT. R. (2000). Examining the social context of bullying behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78(3), 326–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01914.x
20.
FanF.SuL.GillM. K.BirmaherB. (2010). Emotional and behavioral problems of Chinese left-behind children: A preliminary study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 45(6), 655–664. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0107-4
21.
FarrellA. D.GoncyE. A.SullivanT. N.ThompsonE. L. (2018). Evaluation of the problem behavior frequency scale-teacher report form for assessing behavior in a sample of urban adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 30(10), 1277–1291. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000571
22.
FellmethG.Rose-ClarkeK.ZhaoC.BusertL. K.ZhengY.MassazzaA.SonmezH.EderB.BlewittA.LertgraiW.OrcuttM.RicciK.Mohamed-AhmedO.BurnsR.KnipeD.HargreavesS.HeskethT.OpondoC.DevakumarD.DevakumarD. (2018). Health impacts of parental migration on left-behind children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet, 392(10164), 2567–2582. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32558-3
23.
FleissJ. L.LevinB.PaikM. C. (2003). Statistical methods for rates and proportions. John Wiley and Sons.
24.
GageJ. C.OverpeckM. D.NanselT. R.KoganM. D. (2005). Peer activity in the evenings and participation in aggressive and problem behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 37(6), 517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.12.012
25.
HongJ. S.RyouB.PiqueroA. R. (2020). Do family-level factors associated with bullying perpetration and peer victimization differ by race? Comparing European American and african American youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(21-22), 4327–4349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517714441
26.
KellyE. V.NewtonN. C.StapinskiL. A.SladeT.BarrettE. L.ConrodP. J.TeessonM. (2015). Suicidality, internalizing problems and externalizing problems among adolescent bullies, victims and bully-victims. Preventive Medicine, 73, 100–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.01.020
27.
KimH. Y. (2017). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Chi-squared test and Fisher's exact test. Restorative dentistry & endodontics, 42(2), 152–155. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2017.42.2.152
28.
KimJ. H.HahlwegK.SchulzW. (2021). Early childhood parenting and adolescent bullying behavior: Evidence from a randomized intervention at ten-year follow-up. Social Science & Medicine, 282, 114114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114114
29.
LaursenL. L.MadsenK. B.ObelC.HohwuL. (2019). Family dissolution and children's social well-being at school: A historic cohort study. BMC Pediatrics, 19(1), 449. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-019-1821-z
30.
LereyaS. T.CopelandW. E.ZammitS.WolkeD. (2015). Bully/victims: A longitudinal, population-based cohort study of their mental health. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(12), 1461–1471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0705-5
31.
LereyaS. T.SamaraM.WolkeD. (2013). Parenting behavior and the risk of becoming a victim and a bully/victim: A meta-analysis study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(12), 1091–1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.001
32.
LiX. J.CoidJ. W.TangW. J.LvQ. Y.ZhangY. M.YuH.WangQ.DengW.ZhaoL.MaX.MengY.LiM.WangH.ChenT.GuoW.LiT.LiT. (2021). Sustained effects of left-behind experience during childhood on mental health in Chinese university undergraduates. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(12), 1949–1957. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01666-6
33.
LiuQ.PanH. M.HuangY. L.PeiY. L. (2020). Left-behind status and bullying in Chinese rural children: The roles of parental supervision and support and friends in puppy love. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(5), 886260520936368.
34.
LiuT. L.GuoN. W.HsiaoR. C.HuH. F.YenC. F. (2017). Relationships of bullying involvement with intelligence, attention, and executive function in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 70, 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.08.004
35.
LiuZ.LiX.GeX. (2009). Left too early: The effects of age at separation from parents on Chinese rural children’s symptoms of anxiety and depression. American Journal of Public Health, 99(11), 2049–2054. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.150474
36.
LuJ. J.LinL.RoyB.RileyC.WangE.WangK. R.ZhouX. D. (2020). The impacts of parent-child communication on left-behind children's mental health and suicidal ideation: A cross sectional study in Anhui. Children and Youth Services Review, 110, 104785.
37.
LuY.ZhangR.DuH. (2021). Family structure, family instability, and child psychological well-being in the context of migration: Evidence from sequence analysis in China. Child Development, 92(4), Article e416–e438. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13496
Ministry of Education of China. (2016). Instructions on bullying and violence prevention among primary and secondary school students of the Ministry of Education and other eight departments. Ministry of Education of China. https://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A06/s3325/201611/t20161111_288490.html
OlweusD. (2010). In Understanding and researching bullying: Some critical issues. JimersonS. R.SwearerS. M.EspelageD. L. (Eds.). Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group.
42.
OtakeY.LiuX. Q.LuoX. R. (2019). Involvement in bullying among left-behind children in provincial Chinese cities: The role of perceived emotional support. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 28(8), 943–957. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2017.1410749
43.
PerhamusG. R.PerryK. J.Murray-CloseD.OstrovJ. M. (2021). Stress reactivity and social cognition in pure and co-occurring early childhood relational bullying and victimization. Development and Psychopathology, 2021, 1–13
44.
PerrenS.AlsakerF. D. (2006). Social behavior and peer relationships of victims, bully-victims, and bullies in kindergarten. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 47(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01445.x
45.
PoonK. (2016). Understanding risk-taking behavior in bullies, victims, and bully victims using cognitive- and emotion-focused approaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1838. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01838
46.
RaikkonenK.LahtiM.HeinonenK.PesonenA. K.WahlbeckK.KajantieE.OsmondC.BarkerD. J. P.ErikssonJ. G.ErikssonJ. G. (2011). Risk of severe mental disorders in adults separated temporarily from their parents in childhood: The Helsinki birth cohort study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(3), 332–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.07.003
47.
RutterM.ColvertE.KreppnerJ.BeckettC.CastleJ.GroothuesC.HawkinsA.O'ConnorT. G.StevensS. E.Sonuga-BarkeE. J. S.Sonuga-BarkeE. J. (2007). Early adolescent outcomes for institutionally-deprived and non-deprived adoptees. I: Disinhibited attachment. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 48(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01688.x
48.
RutterM.KreppnerJ.CroftC.MurinM.ColvertE.BeckettC.CastleJ.Sonuga-BarkeE.Sonuga-BarkeE. (2007). Early adolescent outcomes of institutionally deprived and non-deprived adoptees. III. Quasi-autism. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 48(12), 1200–1207. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01792.x
49.
ShetgiriR.LinH.AvilaR. M.FloresG. (2012). Parental characteristics associated with bullying perpetration in US children aged 10 to 17 years. American Journal of Public Health, 102(12), 2280–2286. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300725
50.
SolbergM. E.OlweusD. (2003). Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus bully victim questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 239–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10047
51.
SwearerS. M.HymelS. (2015). Understanding the psychology of bullying moving toward a social-ecological diathesis-stress model. American Psychologist, 70(4), 344–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038929
52.
TangW. J.WangG.HuT.DaiQ.XuJ. J.YangY. C.XuJ. P. (2018). Mental health and psychosocial problems among Chinese left-behind children: A cross-sectional comparative study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 241, 133–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.017
53.
ThomasH. J.ConnorJ. P.ScottJ. G. (2018). Why do children and adolescents bully their peers? A critical review of key theoretical frameworks. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(5), 437–451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1462-1
VerlindenM.VeenstraR.GhassabianA.JansenP. W.HofmanA.JaddoeV. W. V.VerhulstF. C.TiemeierH.TiemeierH. (2014). Executive functioning and non-verbal intelligence as predictors of bullying in early elementary school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(6), 953–966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9832-y
57.
WangF.LinL. S.XuM. M.LiL.LuJ. J.ZhouX. D. (2019). Mental health among left-behind children in rural China in relation to parent-child communication. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(10), 1855. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101855
58.
WangF. H. (2017). The relationship between alienation and deviant behavior among rural left-behind children: The moderating role of parental support. Hunan Normal University.
59.
WenM.LinD. H. (2012). Child development in rural China: Children left behind by their migrant parents and children of nonmigrant families. Child Development, 83(1), 120–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01698.x
60.
WethingtonE.GlanzK.SchwartzM. D. (2015). In GlanzK.RimerB. K.ViswanathK. (Eds.), Stress, coping, and health behavior. Jossey-Bass Public Health.
61.
WuQ.LuD.KangM. (2015). Social capital and the mental health of children in rural China with different experiences of parental migration. Social Science & Medicine, 132, 270–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.10.050
62.
WuW.DingW.XieR.TanD.WangD.SunB.LiA. W. (2021). Bidirectional longitudinal relationships between maternal psychological control and bullying/victimization among father-absent left-behind children in China. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(17), 8862605211022062.
63.
XuW. J.YanN.ChenG.ZhangX.FengT. Y. (2018). Parent-child separation: The relationship between separation and psychological adjustment among Chinese rural children. Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment, Care and Rehabilitation, 27(4), 913–921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1776-1
64.
YanH.ChenJ. D.HuangJ. (2019). School bullying among left-behind children: The efficacy of art therapy on reducing bullying victimization. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 40. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00040
65.
YanL.ZhuQ. Q.TuX. W.ZuoX. Y.YuC. Y.LouC. H.LianQ. G. (2018). Bullying victimization and child sexual abuse among left-behind and non-left-behind children in China. PeerJ, 6, article e4865. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4865
66.
ZhangH.ZhouH.CaoR. (2019). Bullying victimization among left-behind children in rural China: Prevalence and associated risk factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(15-16), NP8414–NP8430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519843287
67.
ZhangH. P.ChiP. L.LongH. L.RenX. Y. (2019). Bullying victimization and depression among left-behind children in rural China: Roles of self-compassion and hope. Child Abuse & Neglect, 96, 104072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104072
68.
ZhangW. X.WuJ. F. (1999). Revised Chinese version of the Olweus bully victim questionnaire. Psychological Development and Education.
69.
ZhaoC. Y.WangF.LiL.ZhouX. D.HeskethT. (2017). Long-term impacts of parental migration on Chinese children's psychosocial well-being: Mitigating and exacerbating factors. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(6), 669–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1386-9
ZhouH. Z.JiaoP. Y. (2018). The impact of social determinants of health on school bullying. Social Construction, 5.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
