Concerns about the possible effects of social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted several gaps in our knowledge about the association between social interactions and mental health. The current study aimed to characterize the unique effect of social interaction quantity and quality on daily depressed mood and loneliness and to identify the degree to which these processes operate at the within-person and between-person levels of analysis.
Methods
A community sample of 515 adults was recruited to participate in 75 days of daily surveys. Participants reported on daily feelings of loneliness, depressed mood, social interaction frequency, engagement in vulnerable self-disclosure, and perceived responsiveness. Linear mixed models were used to identify the effect of daily social interaction quantity and quality on loneliness and depressed mood and to characterize the degree to which these effects varied across individuals.
Results
Social interaction quantity and perceived responsiveness were negatively associated with depressed mood and loneliness at the within-person level of analysis. Perceived responsiveness was also negatively associated with depressed mood and loneliness at both the within-person and between-person levels of analysis. Random slopes analysis revealed substantial heterogeneity in the within-person effects.
Limitations
The non-experimental design of this study precludes drawing causal conclusions. Furthermore, demographic and/or geographic differences in the observed effects may limit generalization.
Conclusions
Engaging in more frequent, high-quality interactions may protect against daily depressed mood and loneliness despite one’s average level of these variables. Future research is needed to establish causality and identify the degree to which these findings generalize across samples and time.
AshidaS.HeaneyC. A. (2008). Differential associations of social support and social connectedness with structural features of social networks and the health status of older adults. Journal of Aging and Health, 20(7), 872-893. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264308324626.
2.
BaddeleyJ. L.SingerJ. A. (2009). A social interactional model of bereavement narrative disclosure. Review of General Psychology, 13(3), 202-218. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015655.
BangeeM.HarrisR. A.BridgesN.RotenbergK. J.QualterP. (2014). Loneliness and attention to social threat in young adults: Findings from an eye tracker study. Personality and Individual Differences, 63, 16-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.039.
6.
BeikeD. R.BrandonN. R.ColeH. E. (2016). Is sharing specific autobiographical memories a distinct form of self-disclosure?Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(4), 434-450. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000143.
7.
BolgerN.ZeeK. S.Rossignac-MilonM.HassinR. R. (2019). Causal processes in psychology are heterogeneous. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(4), 601-618. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000558.
8.
BrooksS. K.WebsterR. K.SmithL. E.WoodlandL.WesselyS.GreenbergN.RubinG. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet, 395(10227), 912-920. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30460-8.
9.
BrownL. H.StraumanT.Barrantes-VidalN.SilviaP. J.KwapilT. R. (2011). An experience-sampling study of depressive symptoms and their social context. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 199(6), 403-409. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31821cd24b.
10.
BugentalD. B. (2000). Acquisition of the algorithms of social life: A domain-based approach. Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 187-219. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.187.
11.
CacioppoS.BaloghS.CacioppoJ. T. (2015). Implicit attention to negative social, in contrast to nonsocial, words in the Stroop task differs between individuals high and low in loneliness: Evidence from event-related brain microstates. Cortex, 70, 213-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2015.05.032.
12.
CacioppoS.BangeeM.BaloghS.Cardenas-IniguezC.QualterP.CacioppoJ. T. (2015). Loneliness and implicit attention to social threat: A high-performance electrical neuroimaging study. Cognitive Neuroscience, 7(1–4), 138-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/17588928.2015.1070136.
13.
CacioppoJ. T.CacioppoS. (2018). Loneliness in the modern age: An Evolutionary Theory of Loneliness (ETL). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 58, 127-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.03.003.
14.
CacioppoJ. T.HawkleyL. C.ThistedR. A. (2010). Perceived social isolation makes me sad: 5-year cross-lagged analyses of loneliness and depressive symptomatology in the Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study. Psychology and Aging, 25(2), 453-463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017216.
15.
CalatiR.FerrariC.BrittnerM.OasiO.OliéE.CarvalhoA. F.CourtetP. (2019). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors and social isolation: A narrative review of the literature. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 653-667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.022.
16.
CanevelloA.CrockerJ. (2010). Creating good relationships: Responsiveness, relationship quality, and interpersonal goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(1), 78-106. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018186.
17.
CarmichaelC. L.ReisH. T.DubersteinP. R. (2015). In your 20s it’s quantity, in your 30s it’s quality: The prognostic value of social activity across 30 years of adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 30(1), 95-105. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000014.
18.
Castro-SchiloL.GrimmK. J. (2018). Using residualized change versus difference scores for longitudinal research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35(1), 32-58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517718387.
19.
ColeS. W.HawkleyL. C.ArevaloJ. M. G.CacioppoJ. T. (2011). Transcript origin analysis identifies antigen-presenting cells as primary targets of socially regulated gene expression in leukocytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3080-3085. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014218108.
CuijpersP.SmitF. (2004). Subthreshold depression as a risk indicator for major depressive disorder: A systematic review of prospective studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 109(5), 325-331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00301.x.
22.
EndersC. K.TofighiD. (2007). Centering predictor variables in cross-sectional multilevel models: A new look at an old issue. Psychological Methods, 12(2), 121-138. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.2.121.
23.
GaleaS.MerchantR. M.LurieN. (2020). The mental health consequences of COVID-19 and physical distancing: The need for prevention and early intervention. JAMA Internal Medicine, 180(6), 817-818. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.1562.
24.
GeldhofG. J.PreacherK. J.ZyphurM. J. (2014). Reliability estimation in a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis framework. Psychological Methods, 19(1), 72-91. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032138.
25.
HamakerE. L. (2012). Why researchers should think “within-person”: A paradigmatic rationale. In MehlM. R.ConnerT. S. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 43–61). London: Guilford Publications.
HawkleyL. C.BueckerS.KaiserT.LuhmannM. (2020). Loneliness from young adulthood to old age: Explaining age differences in loneliness. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 14, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025420971048.
29.
Holt-LunstadJ.SmithT. B.LaytonJ. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. Plos Medicine, 7(7), e1000316. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316.
30.
ImamiL.StantonS. C. E.ZilioliS.TobinE. T.FarrellA. K.LucaF.SlatcherR. B. (2019). Self-disclosure and perceived responsiveness among youth with asthma: Links to affect and anti-inflammatory gene expression. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(8), 1155-1169. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218808497.
31.
KanterJ. W.KuczynskiA. M.ManbeckK. E.CoreyM. D.WallaceE. C. (2020). An integrative contextual behavioral model of intimate relations. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 18, 75-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.09.001.
32.
KashdanT. B.YarbroJ.McKnightP. E.NezlekJ. B. (2014). Laughter with someone else leads to future social rewards: Temporal change using experience sampling methodology. Personality and Individual Differences, 58, 15-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.09.025.
33.
KendlerK. S.GardnerC. O. (1998). Boundaries of major depression: An evaluation of DSM-IV criteria. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(2), 172–177.
KushlevK.HeintzelmanS. J.OishiS.DienerE. (2018). The declining marginal utility of social time for subjective well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 74, 124-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.04.004.
37.
LaurenceauJ.-P.BarrettL. F.PietromonacoP. R. (1998). Intimacy as an interpersonal process: The importance of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and perceived partner responsiveness in interpersonal exchanges. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1238.
38.
LaurenceauJ.-P.RiveraL. M.SchafferA. R.PietromonacoP. R. (2004). Intimacy as an interpersonal process: Current status and future directions. In Handbook of closeness and intimacy (pp. 61–78). NJ: Erlbaum Mahwah.
39.
Leigh-HuntN.BagguleyD.BashK.TurnerV.TurnbullS.ValtortaN.CaanW. (2017). An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public Health, 152, 157-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2017.07.035.
40.
LeRoyA. S.MurdockK. W.JaremkaL. M.LoyaA.FagundesC. P. (2017). Loneliness predicts self-reported cold symptoms after a viral challenge. Health Psychology, 36(5), 512-520. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000467.
41.
LevisB.SunY.HeC.WuY.KrishnanA.BhandariP. M.NeupaneD.ImranM.BrehautE.NegeriZ.FischerF. H.BenedettiA.ThombsB. D., & for the Depression Screening Data (DEPRESSD) PHQ Collaboration. (2020). Accuracy of the PHQ-2 alone and in combination with the PHQ-9 for screening to detect major depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA, 323(22), 2290. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.6504.
42.
LewinsohnP. M.SolomonA.SeeleyJ. R.ZeissA. (2000). Clinical implications of “subthreshold” depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(2), 345-351. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843X.109.2.345.
43.
LimM. H.RodebaughT. L.ZyphurM. J.GleesonJ. F. M. (2016). Loneliness over time: The crucial role of social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(5), 620-630. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000162.
44.
LöweB.KroenkeK.GräfeK. (2005). Detecting and monitoring depression with a two-item questionnaire (PHQ-2). Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 58(2), 163-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2004.09.006.
45.
LucasR. E.DienerE. (2001). Understanding extraverts’ enjoyment of social situations: The importance of pleasantness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(2), 343-356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.343.
46.
LucasR. E.LeK.DyrenforthP. S. (2008). Explaining the extraversion/positive affect relation: Sociability cannot account for extraverts’ greater happiness. Journal of Personality, 76(3), 385-414. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00490.x.
MarroquínB. (2011). Interpersonal emotion regulation as a mechanism of social support in depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(8), 1276-1290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.09.005.
49.
MasiC. M.ChenH.-Y.HawkleyL. C.CacioppoJ. T. (2011). A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 219-266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310377394.
50.
MatrajtL.LeungT. (2020). Evaluating the effectiveness of social distancing interventions to delay or flatten the epidemic curve of coronavirus disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 26(8), 1740-1748. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2608.201093.
51.
McClellandH (2020). Loneliness as a predictor of suicidal ideation and behaviour: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 274, 880-896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.004.
NelsonB.McGorryP. D.WichersM.WigmanJ. T. W.HartmannJ. A. (2017). Moving from static to dynamic models of the onset of mental disorder: A review. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(5), 528. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0001.
54.
NezlekJ. B.RichardsonD. S.GreenL. R.Schatten‐JonesE. C. (2002). Psychological well‐being and day‐to‐day social interaction among older adults. Personal Relationships, 9(1), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6811.00004.
55.
Nolen-HoeksemaS (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), 173-176. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00142.
56.
ParkerG.CheahY.-C.RoyK. (2001). Do the Chinese somatize depression? A cross-cultural study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36(6), 287-293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001270170046.
57.
PfefferbaumB.NorthC. S. (2020). Mental health and the Covid-19 pandemic. The New England Journal of Medicine, 383(6), 510-512. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2008017.
PressmanS. D.CohenS.MillerG. E.BarkinA.RabinB. S.TreanorJ. J. (2005). Loneliness, social network size, and immune response to influenza vaccination in college freshmen. Health Psychology, 24(3), 297-306. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.297.
60.
R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/
ReisH. T.ShaverP. R. (1988). Intimacy as an interpersonal process. In DuckS. (Ed.), Handbook of personal relationships: Theory, research and interventions (Vol. 24, pp. 367–389). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
63.
RobertsK. E.HartT. A.EastwoodJ. D. (2010). Attentional biases to social and health threat words in individuals with and without high social anxiety or depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34(4), 388-399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9245-y.
64.
RussellD. W. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20-40. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6601_2.
65.
SandstromG. M.DunnE. W. (2014). Social interactions and well-being: The surprising power of weak ties. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(7), 910-922. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214529799.
66.
SantiniZ. I.KoyanagiA.TyrovolasS.MasonC.HaroJ. M. (2015). The association between social relationships and depression: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 175, 53-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.12.049.
ShermanL. E.MichikyanM.GreenfieldP. M. (2013). The effects of text, audio, video, and in-person communication on bonding between friends. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 7(2), 134. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2013-2-3.
69.
SladeT. (2007). Taxometric investigation of depression: Evidence of consistent latent structure across clinical and community samples. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41(5), 403-410. https://doi.org/10.1080/00048670701261194.
70.
SrivastavaS.AngeloK. M.VallereuxS. R. (2008). Extraversion and positive affect: A day reconstruction study of person–environment transactions. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(6), 1613-1618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.05.002.
71.
StarrL. R.DavilaJ. (2008). Excessive reassurance seeking, depression, and interpersonal rejection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(4), 762-775. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013866.
72.
SunJ.HarrisK.VazireS. (2020). Is well-being associated with the quantity and quality of social interactions?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(6), 1478-1496. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000272.
73.
ThorsteinssonE. B.JamesJ. E. (1999). A Meta-analysis of the effects of experimental manipulations of social support during laboratory stress. Psychology & Health, 14(5), 869-886. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870449908407353.
74.
UchinoB. N.GarveyT. S. (1997). The availability of social support reduces cardiovascular reactivity to acute psychological stress. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20(1), 15-27. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025583012283.
75.
van RoekelE.VerhagenM.EngelsR. C. M. E.ScholteR. H. J.CacioppoS.CacioppoJ. T. (2018). Trait and state levels of loneliness in early and late adolescents: Examining the differential reactivity hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(6), 888-899. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1146993.
76.
van WinkelM.WichersM.CollipD.JacobsN.DeromC.ThieryE.Myin-GermeysI.PeetersF. (2017). Unraveling the role of loneliness in depression: The relationship between daily life experience and behavior. Psychiatry, 80(2), 104-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.2016.1256143.
77.
WangL. (Peggy)MaxwellS. E. (2015). On disaggregating between-person and within-person effects with longitudinal data using multilevel models. Psychological Methods, 20(1), 63-83. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000030.
78.
WeijtersB.GeuensM.SchillewaertN. (2009). The proximity effect: The role of inter-item distance on reverse-item bias. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 26(1), 2-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2008.09.003.
79.
WichersM. (2014). The dynamic nature of depression: A new micro-level perspective of mental disorder that meets current challenges. Psychological Medicine, 44(7), 1349-1360. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713001979.
80.
World Health Organization. (2008). The global burden of disease: 2004 update. (2008). London: World Health Organization.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
