The buffering effect of peer support on the links between family rejection and psychosocial adjustment in LGB emerging adults

Abstract

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) emerging adults often seek support from their peers if they lack support from their family of origin. We predicted that peer social support would moderate the link between negative family relationships and psychosocial adjustment, such that in the context of family rejection, experiencing more peer support would predict lower levels of anxiety, depression, and internalized homonegativity (IH) and higher self-esteem. Sixty-two (27 females) LGB individuals (ages 17–27, M = 21.34 years, SD = 2.65) reported on their families’ attitudes toward homosexuality, experiences of family victimization, peer social support, anxiety and depression symptoms, IH, and self-esteem. Results showed that peer social support moderated the link between negative family attitudes and anxiety and also moderated the link between family victimization and depression. The moderating effects suggest that having a supportive peer group may protect against mental health problems for LGB emerging adults who lack support from their family of origin.

Keywords

Family attitudes family victimization LGB emerging adults peer social support psychosocial adjustment

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Appleby

G. A.

(2001). Ethnographic study of gay and bisexual working-class men in the United States. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 12, 51–62.

Arnett

J. J.

(2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469.

Arnett

J. J.

(2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from late teens through the twenties. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Baumrind

(1991). Parenting styles and adolescent development. The Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 2, 746–758.

Beck

A. T.

Epstein

Brown

Steer

R. A.

(1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897.

Beck

A. T.

Steer

R. A.

Ball

Ranieri

W. F.

(1996). Comparison of Beck depression inventories-IA and-II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 588–597.

Bouris

Guilamo-Ramos

Pickard

Shiu

Loosier

P. S.

Dittus

… Waldmiller

J. M.

(2010). A systematic review of parental influences on the health and well-being of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth: Time for a new public health research and practice agenda. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 31, 273–309.

Bronfenbrenner

Ceci

S. J.

(1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101, 568.

Cantor

M. H.

Brennan

M. G.

Shippy

R. A.

(2004). Caregiving among older lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender New Yorkers. New York, NY: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute.

10.

Cochran

S. D.

Sullivan

J. G.

Mays

V. M.

(2003). Prevalence of mental disorders, psychological distress, and mental health services use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 53–61.

11.

Cohen

(2004). Social relationships and health. American Psychologist, 59, 676–684.

12.

Cohen

H. L.

Murray

(2007). Older lesbian and gay caregivers: Caring for families of choice and caring for families of origin. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 14, 275–298.

13.

Criss

M. M.

Pettit

G. S.

Bates

J. E.

Dodge

K. A.

Lapp

A. L.

(2002). Family adversity, positive peer relationships, and children’s externalizing behavior: A longitudinal perspective on risk and resilience. Child Development, 73, 1220–1237.

14.

D’Augelli

A. R.

Grossman

A. H.

Starks

M. T.

(2005). Parents’ awareness of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths’ sexual orientation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 474–482.

15.

D’Augelli

A. R.

Grossman

A. H.

Starks

M. T.

(2008). Families of gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth: What do parents and siblings know and how do they react? Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 4, 95–115.

16.

D’Augelli

A. R.

Hershberger

S. L.

Pilkington

N. W.

(1998). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth and their families: Disclosure of sexual orientation and its consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 361.

17.

DeGarmo

D. S.

Martinez

C. R.

(2006). A culturally informed model of academic well-being for Latino youth: The importance of discriminatory experiences and social support. Family Relations, 55, 267–278.

18.

Doty

N. D.

Willoughby

B. L.

Lindahl

K. M.

Malik

N. M.

(2010). Sexuality related social support among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1134–1147.

19.

Fehlbaum

(2016). Parents, families and friends of lesbians and gays (PFLAG). Encyclopedia of Family Studies. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

20.

Feinstein

B. A.

Wadsworth

L. P.

Davila

Goldfried

M. R.

(2014). Do parental acceptance and family support moderate associations between dimensions of minority stress and depressive symptoms among lesbians and gay men? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 45, 239–246.

21.

Floyd

F. J.

Stein

T. S.

(2002). Sexual orientation identity formation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Multiple patterns of milestone experiences. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12, 167–191.

22.

Floyd

F. J.

Stein

T. S.

Harter

K. S.

Allison

Nye

C. L.

(1999). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Separation-individuation, parental attitudes, identity consolidation, and well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 719–739.

23.

Friedman

C. K.

Morgan

E. M.

(2009). Comparing sexual-minority and heterosexual young women’s friends and parents as sources of support for sexual issues. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 920–936.

24.

Goldfried

M. R.

Goldfried

A. P.

(2001). The importance of parental support in the lives of gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57, 681–693.

25.

Harter

(1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York, NY: Guilford.

26.

Hastings

P. D.

(2015). Introduction to the special section: Biopsychosocial processes in the etiology and development of internalizing problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 803–805.

27.

Herek

G. M.

Garnets

L. D.

(2007). Sexual orientation and mental health. Annual Review Clinical Psychology, 3, 353–375.

28.

Herek

G. M.

Gillis

J. R.

Cogan

J. C.

(2009). Internalized stigma among sexual minority adults: Insights from a social psychological perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 32.

29.

Igartua

K. J.

Gill

Montoro

(2009). Internalized homophobia: A factor in depression, anxiety, and suicide in the gay and lesbian population. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 22, 15–30.

30.

Juang

L. P.

Alvarez

A. A.

(2010). Discrimination and adjustment among Chinese American adolescents: Family conflict and family cohesion as vulnerability and protective factors. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 2403–2409.

31.

Juang

Ittel

Hoferichter

Gallarin

M. M.

(2016). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and adjustment among ethnically diverse college students: Family and peer support as protective factors. Journal of College Student Development, 57, 380–394.

32.

Kinsey

A. C.

Pomeroy

W. B.

Martin

C. E.

(1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders.

33.

Kosciw

J. G.

Greytak

E. A.

Bartkiewicz

M. J.

Boesen

M. J.

Palmer

N. A.

(2012). The 2011 National school climate survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York, NY: Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN).

34.

Kwon

(2013). Resilience in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 17, 371–383.

35.

Laursen

Collins

W. A.

(2009). Parent—child relationships during adolescence. In Lerner

R. L.

Steinberg

(Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (Vol. 2, 3rd ed., pp. 3–42). New York, NY: Wiley.

36.

Lewis

R. J.

Derlega

V. J.

Griffin

J. L.

Krowinski

A. C.

(2003). Stressors for gay men and lesbians: Life stress, gay-related stress, stigma consciousness, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 716–729.

37.

MacKinnon

D. P.

Lockwood

C. M.

Williams

(2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128.

38.

McConnell

E. A.

Birkett

Mustanski

(2015). Typologies of social support and associations with mental health outcomes among LGBT youth. LGBT Health, 2, 55–61.

39.

McConnell

E. A.

Birkett

Mustanski

(2016). Families matter: Social support and mental health trajectories among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59, 674–680.

40.

Meyer

I. H.

(2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674.

41.

Nesmith

A. A.

Burton

D. L.

Cosgrove

T. J.

(1999). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth and young adults: Social support in their own words. Journal of Homosexuality, 37, 95–108.

42.

Nishina

Bellmore

Witkow

M. R.

Nylund-Gibson

(2010). Longitudinal consistency of adolescent ethnic identification across varying school ethnic contexts. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1389.

43.

Oswald

R. F.

(2002). Resilience within the family networks of lesbians and gay men: Intentionality and redefinition. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 374–383.

44.

Peterson

G. W.

(2005). Family influences on adolescent development. In Gullotta

T. P.

Adams

G. R.

(Eds.), Handbook of adolescent behavioral problems: Evidence-based approaches to prevention and treatment (pp. 27–55). New York, NY: Springer.

45.

Pew Research Center. (2013). A survey of LGBT Americans. Retrieved October 21, 2016, from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/06/13/a-survey-of-lgbt-americans/#social-acceptance-and-the-publics-perspective

46.

Pew Research Center. (2015). Gay marriage around the world. Retrieved June 29, 2016, from http://www.pewforum.org/2015/06/26/gay-marriage-around-the-world-2013/

47.

Pilkington

N. W.

D’Augelli

A. R.

(1995). Victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings. Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 34–56.

48.

Poteat

V. P.

Sinclair

K. O.

DiGiovanni

C. D.

Koenig

B. W.

Russell

S. T.

(2013). Gay–straight alliances are associated with student health: A multischool comparison of LGBTQ and heterosexual youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23, 319–330.

49.

Preacher

K. J.

Hayes

A. F.

(2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.

50.

Proujansky

R. A.

Pachankis

J. E.

(2014). Toward formulating evidence-based principles of LGB-affirmative psychotherapy. Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy: PCSP, 10, 117–131.

51.

Repetti

R. L.

Taylor

S. E.

Seeman

T. E.

(2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330.

52.

Rieger

Chivers

M. L.

Bailey

J. M.

(2005). Sexual arousal patterns of bisexual men. Psychological Science, 16, 579–584.

53.

Rogoff

(2003). The cultural nature of human development. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

54.

Rosenberg

(1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

55.

Ryan

Huebner

Diaz

R. M.

Sanchez

(2009). Family rejection as a predictor of negative health outcomes in White and Latino lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults. Pediatrics, 123, 346–352.

56.

Ryan

Russell

S. T.

Huebner

Diaz

Sanchez

(2010). Family acceptance in adolescence and the health of LGBT young adults. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 23, 205–213.

57.

Santos

C. E.

Kornienko

Rivas-Drake

(in press). Peer influence on ethnic-racial identity development in adolescence: A multi-site investigation. Child Development. doi:10.1111/cdev.12789

58.

Savin-Williams

R. C.

(1989). Parental influences on the self-esteem of gay and lesbian youths: A reflected appraisals model. Journal of Homosexuality, 17, 93–110.

59.

Sheets

R. L.

Mohr

J. J.

(2009). Perceived social support from friends and family and psychosocial functioning in bisexual young adult college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 152.

60.

Shidlo

(1994). Internalized homophobia: Conceptual and empirical issues in measurement. In Greene

Herek

(Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications. Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues (Vol. 1, pp. 176–205). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

61.

Shilo

Savaya

(2011). Effects of family and friend support on LGB youths’ mental health and sexual orientation milestones. Family Relations, 60, 318–330.

62.

Skidmore

W. C.

Linsenmeier

J. A.

Bailey

J. M.

(2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 685–697.

63.

Snapp

S. D.

Watson

R. J.

Russell

S. T.

Diaz

R. M.

Ryan

(2015). Social support networks for LGBT young adults: Low cost strategies for positive adjustment. Family Relations, 64, 420–430.

64.

Stein

K. F.

(1995). Schema model of the self-concept. Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 27, 187–193.

65.

Steinberg

(2001). We know some things: Parent-adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 1–19.

66.

Tilden

V. P.

Nelson

C. A.

May

B. A.

(1990). The IPR inventory: Development and psychometric characteristics. Nursing Research, 39, 337–343.

67.

Toomey

R. B.

Ryan

Diaz

R. M.

Russell

S. T.

(2011). High school gay–straight alliances (GSAs) and young adult well-being: An examination of GSA presence, participation, and perceived effectiveness. Applied Developmental Science, 15, 175–185.

68.

Uchino

(2004). Social support and physical health: Understanding the health consequences of relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

69.

Van Heeringen

Vincke

(2000). Suicidal acts and ideation in homosexual and bisexual young people: A study of prevalence and risk factors. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 494–499.

70.

Vincke

Van Heeringen

(2002). Confidant support and the mental wellbeing of lesbian and gay young adults: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 12, 181–193.

71.

Watson

R. J.

Grossman

A. H.

Russell

S. T.

(2016). Sources of social support and mental health among LGB youth. Youth & Society, Ahead of Print, 1–19. doi:10.1177/0044118X16660110

72.

Watson

R. J.

Russell

S. T.

(2014). Disengaged or bookworm: Academics, mental health, and success for sexual minority youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26, 159–165.

73.

Weeks

Heaphy

Donovan

(2001). Same sex intimacies: Families of choice and other life experiments. London, England: Psychology Press.

74.

Weston

(2013). Families we choose: Lesbians, gays, kinship. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

75.

Williams

Connolly

Pepler

Craig

(2005). Peer victimization, social support, and psychosocial adjustment of sexual minority adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 471–482.

76.

Willoughby

B. L.

Doty

N. D.

Malik

N. M.

(2010). Victimization, family rejection, and outcomes of gay, lesbian, and bisexual young people: The role of negative GLB identity. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6, 403–424.

77.

Yves

Rosseel

(2012). Lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36. Retrieved from http://www.jstatsoft.org/v48/i02/.

78.

Zimmerman

Darnell

D. A.

Rhew

I. C.

Lee

C. M.

Kaysen

(2015). Resilience in community: A social ecological development model for young adult sexual minority women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55, 179–190.