Abstract
Motivation towards academic study typically includes a combination of intrinsic factors, for example personal development, interest/enjoyment of the subject and extrinsic reasons, for example employability or status. This article explores issues in supporting learners on the Professional Qualification in Probation (PQiP) who may lack intrinsic motivation towards the academic degree due to its ‘mandated’ nature. Drawing on Trotter’s concept of ‘involuntary clients’ and experience of working with PQiP learners, a tentative typology of engagement is proposed and reflection is encouraged on how Trotter's principles may be applied to maximise engagement in an educational setting.
Keywords
Introduction
This article explores how staff supporting learners on the Professional Qualification in Probation (PQiP) can positively apply techniques used by probation workers to engage clients with varying levels of motivation. Our ‘steps to engagement’ model (see Figure 1) draws heavily on concepts from Trotter's (2023) book ‘Working with Involuntary Clients’, however, as there are clear differences between the probation and educational contexts we prefer the terminology ‘mandated’ learners. We adopt a reflective approach, drawing on our respective experiences as course leader, module coordinator, personal tutors and learning development and engagement (LDE) tutor to critically analyse the challenges of engaging learners on the PQiP programme. To aid readers less familiar with academic institutions a concise outline of each role is provided here. The course leader oversees programme design, curriculum development, faculty coordination, and assessment management to maintain academic standards and align with institutional goals. The module coordinator manages module delivery, focusing on curriculum, scheduling and assessment. All students are allocated a designated personal tutor who provides academic and pastoral support at an individual level. Meanwhile, the LDE tutor assists students in enhancing their academic skills through study support, workshops and personalised advice.
Steps of engagement.
Our discussion is divided into three main sections. The first section is of these advocates for the ongoing inclusion of the academic component of the PQiP and its purpose in promoting learners’ professional development within their role as probation officers. We propose that its success is influenced by several factors, including learners’ levels of motivation and engagement, prior academic experiences and the effectiveness of staff facilitating learning. In the second section, we aim to address gaps in understanding how to engage PQiP learners, who are completing an academic degree they have not actively chosen but is a requirement of their professional qualification. We identify existing literature about higher education (HE) and learners’ motivation to study, however, there is limited research on the application to work-based training.
In the final section, we explore the key themes of Trotter's (2023) book ‘Working with Involuntary Clients’, a core PQiP reading which may be familiar to practitioners and academics. While his specific focus is on court-mandated settings, Trotter promotes a collaborative approach to building rapport and motivation to overcome potential barriers to success. We reflect on the value of applying similar principles to work with PQiP learners in assessing engagement levels and adapting teaching and support to address relevant issues. His four key concepts of role clarification, pro-social modelling (PSM), problem-solving and relationships are discussed in more detail and applied to the PQiP setting. The themes we identify about learner characteristics and dispositions are drawn from our professional reflections rather than new empirical research. These insights relate specifically to PQiP programme delivery at the University of Portsmouth, so details may differ across institutions. The conclusion builds on this reflective approach to summarise key arguments, suggest themes for further research and invite feedback from those involved in PQiP or professional qualifications, particularly from other HE providers, where approaches to academic delivery may vary.
The continuing value of the academic element of PQiP
The sole pathway to becoming a qualified probation officer in England and Wales is through the PQiP qualification, which integrates Level 5 and Level 6 academic studies with professional training, including a Vocational Qualification (VQ) at Level 5/6 (Burrell and Petrillo, 2022). Implemented in its current form in 2023, the academic element is delivered by four higher education institutions (HEIs) and represents the fourth iteration of the programme since it diverged from social work training in 1997. In line with the Government's strategy to recruit 1000 new probation officers (Hansard, 2024), engagement and successful completion of the PQiP programme are more critical than ever to ensure the probation service is fully staffed and operational.
The professional training for probation officers has undergone several significant transformations, reflecting the ‘unremitting shifts in the structure, governance, roles, and practice methods of probation services’ (Burrell and Petrillo, 2022: 175). Initially, training required completion of the Diploma in Social Work (DipSW), established in 1978. However, political changes in 1997 shifted probation from community support to community punishment, leading to the introduction of the Diploma in Probation Studies (DipPS), which emphasised criminological theories over social welfare (Davies and Durrance, 2009). Consequently, the Home Office recognised probation officers as part of the community justice sector (Canton and Dominey, 2017), increasingly responsible for risk assessment and public protection, therefore requiring a solid grounding in crime and punishment theories alongside social work principles. The DipPS was replaced by the Probation Qualifications Framework (PQF) in 2010, ‘a more practical and employer-led approach’ (Miller and Burke, 2012: 319) which included a 3-year internal non-graduate route or an external 15-month pathway for those with an existing or relevant degree (Skinner and Goldhill, 2013). The initial PQiP, introduced in 2016 with 15- and 21-month graduate routes depending on prior academic experience (Fowler et al., 2023), built on existing blended learning practices by combining online learning with face-to-face masterclasses. This approach continued until COVID-19 necessitated a temporary shift to online delivery (Fowler et al., 2023) which was fully embedded by the University of Portsmouth when the new programme was launched in 2023.
The prior academic and professional experience of PQiP learners is diverse, ranging from recent undergraduates to second careerists (Worrall and Mawby, 2014). The new programme, rather than streamlining the process, has created several routes for graduates with relevant and non-relevant degrees (Burrell and Petrillo, 2022) and an internal ‘fast track’ programme (Stubbs and Pearce, 2022) valuing professional experience as a gateway to accessing the qualification. A critical understanding of academic theories and research has consistently been recognised as essential to the qualification, as it equips probation officers with evidence-based skills and approaches for their work (Dominey, 2010). Nellis (2000) noted that HE should provide the ‘overarching knowledge’ that complements probation practice, delivering the analysis and broader perspective needed for both current and future probation roles, and highlighting the long-term impact of the expertise gained during the course (Dominey, 2010). The numerous changes to the PQiP academic component have led to criticisms, including Cracknell's (2016: 214) view that it is a ‘conveyor belt of training’ that does not allow sufficient time to absorb and integrate new concepts. This underscores the importance of giving learners the time and space to connect academic literature with their practice. The programme's primary mode of delivery has consistently been distance learning (DL), with learners employed as probation service officers (PSOs) and spending most of their time in the workplace. However, there has been a significant reduction in face-to-face components from most HEIs. Burrell and Petrillo (2022; 176) argue that this creates ‘an ambiguous professional identity’ for learners, juggling roles as both employees and trainee probation officers, potentially affecting their engagement with the academic component while limiting opportunities for reflective practice and academic challenge.
The efficacy of delivering probation academic training via online and DL has been discussed in depth (Fowler et al. 2023; Mantle, 2006; Stout and Dominey, 2006; Treadwell, 2006). The well-recognised positives of this approach include access to HE for individuals who may struggle with traditional face-to-face programmes, due to factors such as geographical distance, disability or caring responsibilities (Dominey, 2010). Based on our experience, this is particularly pertinent to PQiP learners, who often come from non-traditional academic backgrounds, such as experiencing social inequality or being first-generation university students (Wong and Chiu, 2021). However, the limitations identified by both learners (Cracknell, 2016) and academics, particularly focus on the difficulties of developing reflective practice and peer support (Burrell and Petrillo, 2022). It has been argued that the success of DL programmes depends heavily on both the quality of the staff delivering them and the commitment of the students (Dominey, 2010). This perspective aligns with existing literature on the success of rehabilitative interventions administered by probation staff, where the outcomes are significantly influenced by the practitioners’ skills and the motivation levels of the individuals under probation (Miller and Rollnick, 2012, Raynor et al., 2012). The parallels highlight the universal importance of both the quality of service delivery and recipient engagement in achieving successful outcomes, thereby demonstrating the relevance of Trotter's (2023) work to the academic element of PQiP.
The Level 6 PQiP qualification equates to the final year of an Honours degree (HMPPS, 2022) and focuses on three key themes: professional ethics, values and practice; rehabilitation and change agency; and risk assessment and management. While HMPPS designed these themes to address the needs of the 21st-century probation service workforce (HMPPS, 2022), the effectiveness of the new curriculum has yet to be empirically tested. The Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) for HE establishes the frameworks for higher education qualifications (FHEQ), ensuring consistent academic standards across institutions. According to the QAA (2024), a Level 6 qualification requires students to demonstrate a systematic understanding of their field, advanced analytical skills, the ability to construct and sustain arguments, critical evaluation of complex data, independent learning and effective communication with various audiences. For probation officers, these criteria ensure a strong grasp of criminology and criminal justice, critical assessment of relevant theories and effective communication, essential skills for risk assessment, public protection and rehabilitation. This academic foundation is designed to equip probation officers with the required knowledge and skills to meet the evolving demands of their profession, ensuring their effectiveness in safeguarding the public and fostering positive change in the lives of those they supervise.
PQiP learners may vary in their familiarity with current academic approaches. These approaches have been developed to accommodate the DL nature of the course and were further advanced during COVID-19 (Fowler et al., 2023), including increased use of e-books and online platforms for teaching and learning. Specific skills are needed to navigate these methods, and this unfamiliarity can lead to feelings of isolation and impact motivation. Adapting to new technologies and self-directed study can be overwhelming, further affecting engagement. Methods for addressing these issues will be discussed throughout the article, specifically applying Trotter's (2023) principles. While learners with recent academic experience may feel more confident, tailored support and interactive online resources are crucial to maintaining engagement and motivation. At the University of Portsmouth, comprehensive support is provided at every stage. At Level 5 learners attend one academic seminar (discussing academic content) and two assessment skills sessions (focusing on the skills needed by learners to complete academic assessments) per module, while at Level 6, they benefit from two seminars and two assessment skills sessions per module. Monthly drop-in sessions with LDE tutors, optional one-on-one sessions and access to personal tutors, module coordinators and library staff further enhance their academic progress. The induction introduces learners to the online platform and learning materials, specifically designed for online study. This approach ensures learners, regardless of their prior academic experience are equipped to adapt to the demands of online learning, fostering engagement, motivation and success in completing the PQiP programme.
The academic element of the PQiP provides essential theoretical foundations for probation officers, but it can also pose challenges for learners, particularly regarding engagement and motivation. The following sections will discuss these challenges and explore the application of Trotter's (2023) principles to identify strategies that can support learners in completing the qualification.
Learner motivation/engagement towards the academic element of PQiP
This section will focus on the concepts of motivation and engagement, reflecting on the application to PQiP learners. Motivation is the ‘central concept in any theory of education’ (Ball, 1997: 1) resulting from interactions between an individual and their environment, leading to the development and sustaining of behaviours (Elmer, 2004). Learners who strive to achieve have a desire, motivation and a willingness to become self-sufficient in their learning, the ‘want’ to be in education allows the growth of motivation (Elmer, 2004). When learners achieve they can see success providing them with a motivational goal to strive towards; ‘If you do not understand why your students resist engaging in your classroom, you will never build consistent motivation’. (Jackson, 2011: 67)
Distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is essential in understanding self-directed learning, especially for DL programs. A key concept of DL is self-determination theory (SDT) focusing on understanding the factors that drive motivation and psychological well-being, emphasising self-growth and the innate motivation for learning and personal development (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Reeve, 2012). Intrinsic motivation is driven by interest and enjoyment, while extrinsic motivation relies on external rewards or obligations (Ryan and Deci, 2020). Both are essential, as the drive to succeed stems from a learner's motivation to become self-sufficient (Elmer, 2004). PQiP learners may experience either form of motivation. Some are intrinsically motivated and genuinely interested in improving their practice. However, others, particularly those on the PSO route, may view the qualification as a stepping stone, aligning with Cracknell's (2016: 214) idea of training as a ‘conveyor belt’. Our experience suggests motivation varies with how learners perceive the academic demands and relevance of the qualification. While many learners prioritise career advancement over additional qualifications, some do aim to complete recognised qualifications. From our experience working with PQiP learners, we have observed that motivation and engagement often depend on learners’ acceptance of academic requirements. Many external candidates, who are new to working in the probation service, may lack intrinsic motivation for further study, either due to underestimating the additional workload or believing they have already covered the material in previous study. Essentially, seeing the qualification as a means to an end leads to disengagement and a lack of self-driven learning. These learners require support to develop motivation and appreciate the relevance and practical application of the academic component of the PQiP and the value this brings (Elmer, 2004; Ryan and Deci, 2020). The PQiP follows the QAA for HE standards (2024), providing learners with a systematic understanding of their field, the development of advanced analytical skills, and enabling engagement in dedicated sessions directly linking their practice to study. In essence, this could be seen as a motivating factor to enhance engagement providing learners with the opportunity to invest in the learning process. Over time, motivation to achieve may shift from an extrinsic to an intrinsic mindset (Reeve, 2012).
For extrinsically motivated learners, a sense of value is crucial for fostering engagement. Educators can enhance perceived value by linking curriculum content, teaching strategies, and learning outcomes to practical applications in the learners’ field. With these connections in place, learners are more likely to transition from external motivation to a more intrinsic drive, resulting in deeper engagement and long-term commitment to their studies (Elmer, 2004; Jackson, 2011; Ryan and Deci, 2020). There are three primary causes of learner resistance; fear of failure, lack of relevance and lack of trust (Jackson, 2011). For PQiP learners two of these categories are more prevalent, fear of failure and lack of trust. Some learners have not studied for a long time, often facing a barrier that they ‘cannot do it’ when in reality they have all of the skills and techniques to excel. They often fear failure due to the perceived loss of key skills. However, with the right tools and approaches, which will be explored later, we have seen that PQiP learners can develop strong engagement and success with course materials at all levels of engagement.
Learners who fear failure disengage and lack motivation for many reasons (Tan and Prihadi, 2022). The concept that failure is upsetting can mean that some learners will not engage due to the risk they may not pass. These learners often have the skill set to become motivated and committed but must be encouraged to develop self-sufficiency (Elmer, 2004; Entwistle, 1981; Jackson, 2010). However, engaging these individuals can be challenging as failure is hard to define. Jackson (2010: 40) outlines the assumption that ‘everyone knows what failure is’ but this perception varies based on one's background. Educators need to ensure that learners have the space to build confidence in their ability to succeed (Tan and Prihadi, 2022). Learners on the PQiP, regardless of their pathway, may have been away from HE for some time. This can intensify their fear of failure due to their lack of recent academic experience. Disengagement at this stage can be attributed to self-protective behaviours (Jackson, 2011). Some learners employ strategic manoeuvres to mitigate the potential implications of failure, aiming to safeguard their self-worth (Martin, 2012). Understanding the intricate relationship between fear of failure, engagement and becoming self-sufficient is essential for effective pedagogy. Encouraging trust, guidance and acknowledging diverse perspectives of failure empowers learners to navigate their educational journey with resilience and purpose (Martin, 2012), similar to Trotter's (2023) work and the concept of involuntary clients, which will be addressed in the following section.
There is an inherent link between learner engagement and trust (Kim et al., 2023) as learners often assess educators’ commitment before reciprocating (Jackson, 2010). Consequently, they withhold their essential skills, seeking assurance that they will receive the necessary support to become self-sufficient (Elmer, 2004). Fostering a trusting relationship between educators and learners is crucial to developing effective teaching and learning (Felten et al., 2023), particularly in the PQiP context, where teaching staff have varying backgrounds in practice and academia. Within HE, especially DL, it is vital to ensure learners see the support to develop trusting relationships with staff they may never meet in person. Learners who perceive a lack of support or doubt the teacher's commitment to their success are unlikely to view engagement as worthwhile (Jackson, 2010). It can be harder to build good working relationships due to the online nature of the PQiP qualification and the lack of in-person learner-teacher contact (Anwar, 2021). There are still doubts surrounding the effectiveness of online learning environments (Hashem, 2011) with higher numbers of learners on DL programmes being prone to ‘dropping out’ in comparison to face-to-face engagement (Bell and Federman, 2013). Before the PQiP, both the DipPS and the PQF adopted a more blended approach. Treadwell and Mantel (2007) emphasised the need to justify the delivery of DL calling for pedagogical logic due to the lack of engagement with online courses. However, increasing the accessibility of qualifications in HE through a blended learning approach adds value, particularly for probation learners, who are often dispersed geographically and benefit from the flexibility of accessing learning anytime, anywhere (Davies and Durrance, 2009).
Nevertheless, there are barriers as physical classroom settings enhance relationship building through trust, rapport and body language, while large group sizes and limited sessions in online learning can hinder personalised support (Davies and Durrance, 2009). Learners are allocated dedicated personal tutors and can book sessions with LDE tutors for support with content-based queries and academic skills. At the University of Portsmouth, PQiP learners receive tailored support through academic seminars, assessment skills sessions and academic skills drop-ins, with the academic seminars being the only mandatory component. This structure fosters engagement by encouraging contact, offering weekly opportunities for interaction, through both scheduled sessions or responsive individual support. Such frequent contact provides a supportive learning environment, fostering a sense of community and inclusion for learners, delivering an experience comparable to in-person sessions, and helping build the confidence needed for successful progression. Just as fear can influence learner engagement, the dynamic interplay between trust and engagement – along with the unique challenges faced by online learners – highlights the need for intentional pedagogical strategies. Educators must bridge the virtual divide, instil confidence, and cultivate a sense of investment, even in the absence of physical proximity (Laufer et al., 2021). This sets the scene for the ‘steps to engagement’ model (see Figure 1) offering strategies for engaging learners within any teaching environment whilst instilling confidence.
Value plays a crucial role in engagement (Ledertoug and Paarup, 2021; Kim et al., 2023). It can be defined as having a connection with the materials being delivered and linking them to real-life situations (Immordino-Yang and Damasio, 2007). To overcome learner resistance, it is essential to demonstrate value in a manner that resonates with their understanding. A common pitfall is relying on generic motivational approaches, which often fail to address the specific reasons behind learners’ reluctance (Tharayil et al., 2018). Instead, educators should tailor their responses directly to the root causes of resistance, emphasising significance in meaningful terms, such as demonstrating how concepts apply in a practical setting, which fosters higher engagement (Immordino-Yang and Damasio, 2007; Jackson, 2011). Experiencing real-life applications in their role helps learners see value in what they are taught. In the PQiP academic component, consistent, valued support encourages engagement. Learners need to grasp both the broader importance and personal relevance of tasks which can be enhanced by connecting theory with practice, and linking knowledge to practical decision-making (Tharayil et al., 2018). This personalised approach encourages engagement and empowers informed choices, highlighting the importance of Elmer's (2004) work in becoming a self-sufficient learner. Providing learners with the skills to engage actively and enhance their existing abilities transforms them within their learning, fostering intrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci, 2020).
Developing strong relationships is essential for fostering trust and engagement in education (Jackson, 2010, 2011; Kim et al., 2023; Martin, 2012). Transitioning learners from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation requires investing in their recognition of their inherent value and the quality of their work (Jackson, 2011; Ryan and Deci, 2020). This process is closely tied to building trust through effective support and delivery. When learners see their successes, it enhances their motivation to engage with course content (Kim et al., 2023; Ledertoug and Paarup, 2021). Educators must emphasise the value of the content helping learners understand their own skills for self-sufficiency (Elmer, 2004) rather than relying solely on being given the content to be rewritten for assessments. Balancing these efforts can be challenging due to time constraints, but the payoff is significant. PQiP learners juggle a demanding job with intensive study, often after a break from academic study. Motivating learners to recognise their abilities through engagement can be enhanced and an outcome rooted in trust and perceived value can be developed. Ultimately, learners must witness support in practice to fully appreciate their worth (Immordino-Yang and Damasio, 2007). Educators can enhance learner engagement, trust, and motivation by developing intentional pedagogical strategies for online delivery. Moreover, these strategies empower every learner to transition from extrinsic to intrinsically motivated (Ryan and Deci, 2020). While research on motivation among PQiP learners is limited, our experiences have shown that fostering confidence and developing supportive relationships can help learners recognise their abilities and value the support they receive, thereby significantly enhancing their academic engagement.
Supporting ‘mandated learners’
Having established the importance of the academic component of PQiP to professional development, and potential motivational issues, this final section focuses on how staff supporting learners can assess and maximise engagement. This draws in particular on Trotter's (2023) concepts of ‘Working with Involuntary Clients’. Trotter defines clients in settings such as probation or social work as ‘involuntary’ because: ‘…they have not chosen to receive the service they are given. In fact, these clients might actively be opposed to receiving the service’. (Trotter, 2023: 1)
While PQiP candidates have chosen to undertake the programme, as one colleague anecdotally summarised, this is often ‘because they want to become probation officers, not because they want another qualification’. In this respect, they are distinct from ‘typical’ university students who have applied to study subjects of their own choosing (and generally have no competing demands of vocational training or professional duties). The academic degree then could mirror the definition of a service they have ‘not chosen to receive’. In terms of whether they feel ‘active opposition’, while this depends on a combination of individual factors, for many PQiP learners motivation towards study may be based primarily on extrinsic aims of career progression. It should not be assumed though, that there is a universal lack of intrinsic motivation. Trotter also notes; ‘The distinction between voluntary and involuntary clients is…perhaps best viewed on a continuum… in many cases, the principles are also relevant to clients who might be described as partially voluntary or even voluntary’. (Trotter, 2023: 2)
Just as learners/educators may have different definitions of ‘failure’ (Jackson, 2010), outcomes demonstrating ‘successful’ engagement for PQiP learners could be measured on several continua. For example, explicit enthusiasm, pro-active contact with staff, contribution to teaching forums, completion of assignments and overall attainment. Wong and Chiu (2021) highlight the complexities of defining an ‘ideal’ university student but cite similar characteristics. Based on our observations, while many PQiP learners present at the positive end of all of these, there can be great variation. Some may openly challenge the need for the degree or express reluctance to engage beyond the minimum required to pass. The aim of this article is not to categorically apply Trotter's (2023) label of ‘Involuntary Clients’ to all learners, nor to draw direct parallels with clients in a criminal justice setting. It is also acknowledged that the extrinsic ‘pressures’ underpinning engagement are very different. That is while PQiP learners are required to study as part of their chosen career path, probation or social work clients are obligated by the power of the state and face potential legal consequences for non-compliance. To highlight some distinctions in these variables, the preferred terminology used is ‘
These caveats notwithstanding, a key role for teaching staff is to maximise learner outcomes in a manner that takes account of the mandated nature of the programme. While there may be a complexity of factors to consider, objectively measuring individual engagement could allow for support to be adapted accordingly. A tentative typology is therefore proposed in Figure 1. Further research may help to officially validate this model, however, it is outlined below as a starting point for assessment and practice.
The ‘steps’ visually represent four progressive levels of learner engagement which are explained below:
We do not assume that all learners begin at the lowest level and acknowledge that engagement can also move downwards. While not all will need to reach the highest levels to pass the qualification, in our observations many learners demonstrate at least some signs of progression throughout the programme. While it is fairly common in early interactions for learners to comment that they are aiming only for a passing grade of 40%, average grades on completion of Level 5 and 6 modules are typically in the high 50s or early 60s, indicating some development of intrinsic engagement. What is less clear is which factors make the difference for learners who obtain these grades, in comparison with those who achieve only borderline passes, or even fail the programme. Again, while there is a complexity of issues involved, our aim here is to promote discussion of how staff approaches to teaching and support contribute to success.
The intended benefit of applying the Steps of Engagement model (Figure 1) is to allow staff to consider appropriate outcomes relative to the learner's current stage. For example, at the lowest step these may be simply promoting engagement by drawing on the principle of ‘Developing Discrepancy’ between short-term and long-term goals (Miller and Rollnick, 2012). At intermediate levels, approaches may emphasise building on extrinsic motives to elicit more intrinsic benefits of engagement (Reeve, 2012). For those already at the higher steps, an appropriate focus may be establishing optimum levels of support to achieve the best possible grades, as well as identifying goals for CPD. Across all levels, this article proposes a consistent, evidence-based approach as key to successful outcomes, focusing on
Potential applications of Trotter's (2023) core themes of working with involuntary/mandated clients to PQiP learners are explored below.
1. Role Clarification
In essence, this is a straightforward principle, namely that successful outcomes rely on the ‘client’ and ‘worker’ having mutual clarity on why they are working together and to what extent any rules can be negotiated. Fuller and Taylor (2011) highlight the importance of agreeing an informal contract for key considerations of
One area to consider is how PQiP learners perceive the role of academic staff, noting potential elements of duality. Staff provide support, guidance and assistance across a range of academic and pastoral issues, however, in other instances, it may be necessary to fail assignments, give feedback that could be construed as negative and in extreme cases, contribute to processes that may lead to removal from the programme. A potentially complicating factor is the number of staff who may work with learners across the qualification, with distinct but often overlapping roles (our introduction outlined the distinction between some of these key roles at the University of Portsmouth). In terms of applying this principle for PQiP learners the following points of reflection are suggested:
How learners perceive academic staff in terms of the potential dual role and how could tensions around this be mitigated? How can clarity be provided in induction materials and throughout the academic programme regarding the roles and boundaries of all staff involved? What could support best practice in encouraging open discussion with learners about mutual expectations? 2. Pro-Social Modelling
The core principles of PSM are again straightforward, namely recognising and reinforcing positive or pro-social behaviours/attitudes, appropriately challenging negative or anti-social ones and explicitly modelling behavioural outcomes workers aim to promote or instil (Trotter, 2023). Cherry (2017) advocates the value of demonstrating PSM across all levels of an organisation. As PQiP learners will be encouraged to use these skills in practice throughout training and on qualification, having them mirrored by educators could have an additional benefit in providing a ‘360 degree’ approach. The earlier discussion highlighted how learner engagement can be enhanced by actively demonstrating the application of theoretical concepts in a practical context (Immordino-Yang and Damasio, 2007). Also, focusing teaching and assessment on ‘real world’ issues and solution-focused applications can encourage transformative engagement, specifically in online settings (Meyers, 2008). There are potential opportunities for academic staff with professional or research backgrounds in probation and related fields to act as models by sharing examples of their own experiences to demonstrate how academic theory can benefit practice. These findings could have value in the context of PQiP as a vocational programme, particularly for learners whose motivations are based initially on extrinsic aims of qualifying.
While Trotter (2023) emphasises the importance of PSM with mandated clients, he highlights how staff may feel it is just ‘what they do anyway’ and promotes ongoing training and reflection on its correct use. He accepts that underpinning skills and qualities may come naturally but warns they must be used consciously to avoid complacency. Points of reflection in terms of how PSM could be used appropriately in the context of PQiP learners include:
What behaviours could be construed as sufficiently ‘antisocial’ to require challenge? This overlaps with the previous principle of setting appropriate boundaries, as expressing some degree of resistance may be natural and learners should feel able to make constructive criticism of how their needs are met. However, in some circumstances, comments may be disrespectful towards staff, or disruptive to other learners if made out of context during a live teaching session. What methods of positive or negative reinforcement may be feasible or appropriate in the online academic setting? What behaviours can be actively modelled to demonstrate legitimacy? How could appropriate boundaries be set around the disclosure of personal and professional experiences? 3. Problem-solving 4. Relationships
Trotter (2023) advocates a collaborative approach to identify and address specific barriers to success and provide appropriate levels of support. Reflecting on our experiences of PQiP engagement, learners at the lower ‘steps’ sometimes appear to view the main problem as having to undertake academic learning in the first place and may expect staff to provide immediate solutions to their difficulties. However, as highlighted earlier, in an educational setting support should take a balanced approach and promote self-sufficiency (Elmer, 2004). One example of this from our own experiences is a learner emailing their tutor a link to a source they have found online and asking how they should reference it in their assignment. The ‘quick win’ (and possibly the learner's expectation) could be for the tutor to simply provide the full reference in the correct format, however, this would not teach the important skills underpinning referencing and may encourage over-dependence. Equally though, simply signposting to online guidance or teaching materials may ignore difficulties the learner has in understanding these, potentially reinforcing their views of staff as ‘unsupportive’. Trotter (2023) proposes a five-step model for effective problem-solving. Reflection is encouraged on how these steps could be demonstrated for problems presented by PQiP learners. An example is explored here based on the above scenario.
Trotter (2023) identifies a range of factors to maximise effectiveness in establishing and maintaining positive relationships with mandated clients. Points for reflection are given in terms of how some of these may apply to the PQiP setting:
Conclusion
This article has explored the value of the academic component of the PQiP programme, considered issues around potential extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation among learners and provided some tentative recommendations for gauging and promoting positive engagement. It is recognised that further research is needed to validate and build on the models and guidance proposed. Before exploring specific recommendations, it is important to recognise potential limitations and considerations. Again, PQiP learners are under significant time pressures, which can be a source of anxiety (Burrell and Petrillo, 2022). This potentially amplifies the need for further insight into best practice in providing support, however it is crucial to take a realistic approach. Any suggestions for academic practice must be embedded into existing activities rather than risking a ‘Catch-22’ situation by creating additional pressure. A similar sense of realism needs to be applied in terms of appropriate outcomes within the timescales of the programme, that is not all learners may be able to move from ‘Resistance’ to ‘Transformation’ within 15 or 21 months of study. Also, while the demographic characteristics of PQiP learners have been touched on in terms of ‘non-traditional’ students (Wong and Chiu, 2021), diversity issues may require further consideration. There could be risks in assuming a ‘one size fits all’ model of factors impairing or promoting engagement as adaptations or caveats may be needed to take account of age, gender, ethnicity and wider identities. A further consideration is neurodiversity. Worthington and Bennett (2023) explore issues for HE learners with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the field of forensic psychology. Findings indicate that some traits of neurodiversity may function as strengths. Examples of these which are particularly transferrable to probation learners include being comfortable taking risks, creativity in thinking and problem-solving and being composed in pressure situations. However, improvements were suggested in terms of HE institutions providing appropriate and consistent support for learners to maximise these benefits.
Despite these areas of caution, this article has highlighted a significant gap in literature specifically relating to the educational experiences of PQiP learners. To allow for further insight into the topics discussed here, the following areas for future research are suggested:
Investigate current and former learners’ perspectives on the qualification's value, staff roles, and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation levels. Validate learner typology by analysing engagement patterns and correlating them with the characteristics of the proposed steps. Research with academic staff could complement this by identifying how many learners fit each category. Conduct mixed methods research to assess the effectiveness of specific approaches, correlating them with completion/attainment levels and longer-term retention, incorporating qualitative learner feedback. Explore the specific significance and impact of DL on PQiP learner engagement.
In addition to these suggestions for more formal research, several reflective points have been encouraged in this article. The authors would welcome feedback and further discussion from staff across HEIs and probation areas working with PQiP as well as from learners themselves.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
