This article explores the significant linkages between the rise of Delhi as the foremost Sufi centre and the bastion of Islam as well as the seat of political power in the 13th and 14th centuries. Three out of the first five leading Chishti saints of the Sultanate period chose to live in Delhi, catapulting the city onto the map of the sacred geography of South Asian Islam. The Chishti Sufis also helped in shaping the cosmopolitan character of the city, even as they ensured that the interests of Islam and Muslims were safeguarded. Hence, though Delhi remained the centre of Muslim power for close to six centuries and its landscape is dotted with mosques, madrasas and dargahs of the Sufis, the exclusionist, juridical interpretation of Islam was sidelined in favour of a more inclusive approach to religion practised and propagated by the Chishtis. The essay charts this process and its significance for the early history of Islam in India.
Afzal-ul-Fawa'id (n.d.) Conversations of Shaykh Nizam-ud-Din Auliya. Compilation attributed to Amir Khusrau , Urdu translation. Delhi: Maktaba Jam-i-Noor .
2.
Ahmad, Aziz (2003 [1963]) ‘Epic and Counter-Epic in Medieval India’. In Richard M. Eaton (ed.), India's Islamic Traditions, 711–1750 (pp. 37–49). Delhi: Oxford University Press .
3.
Akhbar-ul-Akhyar (n.d.) of Sheikh Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlawi. Manuscript, IO Islamic 1450, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London.
4.
Akhbar-ul-Akhyar (1990) of Sheikh Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlawi . Urdu translation by Subhan Mahmud and Muhammad Fazil . Delhi: Adabi Duniya .
5.
Alam, Muzaffar (2004) The Languages of Political Islam in India, c. 1200–1800. Delhi: Permanent Black .
6.
Ansari, Zoe and Sahar, Abul Faiz (eds.) (1989) Khusro Shanasi (in Urdu). Delhi: Taraqqi Urdu Bureau .
7.
Aquil, Raziuddin (1997–98) ‘ Conversion in Chishti Sufi Literature (13th–14th Centuries) ’. Indian Historical Review, 24(1–2): 70–94 .
8.
Aquil, Raziuddin (2003a) ‘Miracles, Authority and Benevolence: Stories of Karamat in Chishti Sufi Literature of the Delhi Sultanate’. In Anup Taneja (ed.), Sufi Cults and the Evolution of Medieval Indian Culture (pp. 109–38). Delhi: ICHR and Northern Book Centre .
9.
Aquil, Raziuddin (2003b) ‘ Episodes from the Life of Shaikh Farid-ud-Din Ganj-i-Shakar ’. International Journal of Punjab Studies, 10(1–2): 25–46 .
10.
Aquil, Raziuddin (2004) ‘ On Islam and Kufr in the Delhi Sultanate: Towards a Reinterpretation of Ziya'-ud-Din Barani's Fatawa-i-Jahandari ’. Paper presented at ‘Rethinking a Millennium: Conference in Honour of Prof. Harbans Mukhia’, New Delhi.
11.
Aquil, Raziuddin (2007) Sufism, Culture, and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India. Delhi: Oxford University Press .
12.
Arjomand, Saïd Amir (2004) ‘ Transformation of the Islamicate Civilization: A Turning-Point in the Thirteenth Century? ’. Medieval Encounters, 10(1–3): 213–45 .
13.
Beg, Mirza Sangin (1982) Sair-ul-Manazil, Persian text with Urdu translation by Sharif Husain Qasimi. Delhi: Ghalib Institute .
14.
Currie, P.M. (1989) The Shrine and Cult of Muin al-Din Chishti of Ajmer. Delhi: Oxford University Press .
15.
Digby, Simon (1986) ‘ The Sufi Shaykh as a Source of Authority in Medieval India ’. Purushartha, 9: 55–77 .
16.
Digby, Simon (1990) ‘ The Sufi Shaikh and the Sultan: A Conflict of Claims to Authority in Medieval India ’. Iran, 28: 71–81 .
17.
Eaton, Richard M. (1978) Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700. Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton: Princeton University Press .
18.
Eaton, Richard M. (2002) ‘Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States’. In Richard M. Eaton , Essays on Islam and Indian History (pp. 94–132). New Delhi: Oxford University Press .
19.
Eaton, Richard M. (2003) ‘The Political and Religious Authority of the Shrine of Baba Farid’. In Richard M. Eaton (ed.), India's Islamic Traditions, 711–1750 (pp. 263–84). Delhi: Oxford University Press .
20.
Ernst, Carl W. (1992) Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Centre. Albany: State University of New York Press .
21.
Ernst, Carl W. and Lawrence, Bruce B. (2002) Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond. New York: Palgrave Macmillan .
22.
Faruqi, Ihsanul Haq (1963) Sultan-ut-Tarikin. Karachi: Dairah Mu'inul Ma'arif .
23.
Faruqi, Ziya-ul-Hasan (1996) Fawa'id al-Fu'ad: Spiritual and Literary Discourses of Shaikh Nizamuddin Awliya/Originally Compiled by Amir Hasan ‘Ala’ Sijzi Dehlawi. English translation with introduction and historical annotation. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld .
24.
Fatawa-i-Jahandari (1972 edn) By Ziya-ud-Din Barani, ed. by Afsar Salim Khan . Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan .
25.
Fawa’ id-ul-Fu'ad (1990 edn) Conversations of Shaikh Nizam-ud-Din Auliya, compiled by Amir Hasan Sijzi . Persian text with an Urdu translation by Khwaja Hasan Sani Nizami. Delhi: Urdu Academy .
26.
Friedmann, Yohanan (2003 [1986]) ‘Islamic Thought in Relation to the Indian Context’. In Richard M. Eaton (ed.), India's Islamic Traditions, 711–1750 (pp. 50–63). Delhi: Oxford University Press .
27.
Frykenberg, R.E. (ed.) (1986) Delhi Through the Ages: Essays in Urban History, Culture and Society. Delhi: Oxford University Press .
28.
Habib, Mohammad and Nizami, K.A. (1992 [1970]) (eds.) A Comprehensive History of India, Vol. V, Part One. The Delhi Sultanate. Delhi: People's Publishing House .
29.
Haqq, M. Enamul (1975) A History of Sufism in Bengal. Dacca: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh .
30.
Jackson, Peter (1999) The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
31.
Jawahir-i-Faridi (1884 edn) of Ali Asghar. Lahore: Victoria Press .
32.
Juneja, Monica (ed.) (2001) Architecture in Medieval India: Forms, Contexts, Histories. Delhi: Permanent Black .
33.
Kaul, H.K. (ed.) (1985) Historic Delhi: An Anthology. Delhi: Oxford University Press .
34.
Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad (2000 edn) Asar-us-Sanadid (with an Introduction by Tanwir Ahmad Alavi). Delhi: Urdu Academy .
35.
Khayr-ul-Majalis (1959 edn) Conversations of Sheikh Nasir-ud-Din Chiragh-i-Dehli, compiled by Hamid Qalandar, edited by K.A. Nizami . Aligarh: Muslim University .
36.
Khazinat-ul-Asfiya (n.d.) of Maulwi Ghulam Sarwar, Vol. I. Kanpur: Newal Kishore .
37.
Kumar, Sunil (2002) The Present in Delhi's Pasts. Delhi: Three Essays .
38.
Latif, Sk. Abdul (1993) The Muslim Mystic Movement in Bengal, 1301–1550. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi .
39.
Lawrence, Bruce B. (1983) ‘The Early Chishti Approach to Sama’. In M. Israel and N.K. Wagle (eds.), Islamic Society and Culture: Essays in Honour of Professor Aziz Ahmad (pp. 69–93). Delhi: Manohar .
40.
Lawrence, Bruce B. (1991) Nizam Ad-Din Awliya: Morals for the Heart. English translation of Fawa'id-ul-Fu'ad. New York: Paulist Press .
41.
Mirza, M. Wahid (1986) Amir Khusrau (in Urdu). Delhi: National Amir Khusrau Society .
42.
Mujeeb, M. (1972) ‘The Qutb Complex as a Social Document’. In M. Mujeeb , Islamic Influence on Indian Society (pp. 111–24). Meerut: Meenakshi Prakashan .
43.
Narain, A.K. (1986) ‘On the Proto-history of Delhi and its Environs’. In R.E. Frykenberg (ed.), Delhi Through the Ages: Essays in Urban History, Culture and Society (pp. 3–17). Delhi: Oxford University Press .
44.
Nizami, K.A. (1955) The Life and Times of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar. Aligarh: Muslim University .
45.
Nizami, K.A. (1991a) The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya. Delhi: Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i Delli .
46.
Nizami, K.A. (1991b) The Life and Times of Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh. Delhi: Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i Delli .
47.
Qasimi, Ata-ur-Rahman (1995) Dilli ki Tarikhi Masajid (in Urdu). Delhi: Maulana Azad Academy .
48.
Qiwam-ul-Aqa'id (1994 edn) Muhammad Jamal Qiwam, Urdu translation by Nisar Ahmad Faruqui . Rampur: Idarah Nashar-o-Isha‘at .
49.
Rahat-ul-Muhibbin (n.d.) Collection of the malfuzat of Nizam-ud-Din Auliya, compilation attributed to Amir Khusrau, Urdu translation. Delhi: Maktaba Jam-i-Noor .
50.
Rahat-ul-Qulub (n.d.) Collection of the malfuzat of Farid-ud-Din Ganj-i-Shakar, compilation attributed to Nizam-ud-Din Auliya. Urdu translation. Delhi: Maktaba Jam-i-Noor .
Singh, Upinder (1999) Ancient Delhi. Delhi: Oxford University Press .
56.
Siyar-ul-Arifin (n.d.) of Shaikh Jamali. Ms., IO Islamic 1313, OIOC, British Library, London .
57.
Siyar-ul-Auliya (1978 edn) of Amir Khwurd. Islamabad: Markaz Tahqiqat-i-Farsi Iran wa Pakistan .
58.
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (1970 edn [1881]) A General History of the Muhammadan Dynasties of Asia, Including Hindustan. By Maulana Minhaj-ud-din Abu-‘Umar-i-‘Usman [Minhaj-us-Siraj], translated from original Persian manuscripts by Major H.G. Raverty, 2 Vols, Reprint. Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation .
59.
Tarikh-i-Farishta (1983 edn) of Muhammad Qasim Farishta. Urdu translation by Abdul Hai Khwaja , Vol. I. Deoband: Maktaba Millat .
60.
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi (n.d.) of Ziya-ud-Din Barani. British Museum Ms. 6376, OIOC, British Library, London .
61.
Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (1931 edn) of Yahya bin Ahmad bin Abdullah Sarhindi, edited by M. Hidayat Hosain . Calcutta: Asiatic Society .
62.
The Delhi Omnibus (2002) Incorporating four classic works on the history of Delhi through the ages. Delhi: A Historical Sketch and Twilight of the Mughuls: Studies in Late Mughal Delhi >by Percival Spear; Delhi between Two Empires 1803–1931 by Narayani Gupta; and Delhi through the Ages: Selected Essays in Urban History, Culture and Society, edited by R.E. Frykenberg . New Delhi: Oxford University Press .
