Animal models are generally used to elucidate human physiology or pathology. However, attempts to extrapolate animal model findings to humans are undermined by differences in the aetiology and natural history between any animal model condition and the analogous human condition, and by unavoidable interspecies differences in anatomy and physiology. Even when working with species “closely related” to humans, such as chimpanzees, the animal model paradigm is fundamentally unsound. Unfortunately, few animal researchers seriously question the utility of animal models, and consequently they rarely consider other, perhaps more efficient and more reliable, means of conducting biomedical research.
KuhnT. (1969). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 210 pp. Chicago, IL, USA: University of Chicago Press.
2.
BernardC. (1949). An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 267 pp. Paris: Henry Schuman.
3.
Anon. (1988). Use of Animals in Biomedical research: The Challenge and Response, 36 pp. White Paper. Chicago, IL, USA: American Medical Association.
4.
GayW.I. ed. (1986). Health Benefits of Animal Research, 82 pp. Washington, DC, USA: Foundation for Biomedical Research.
5.
LaFolletteH., and ShanksN. (1992). Animal models in biomedical research: some epistemiological worries.Public Affairs Quarterly7, 113–130.
6.
LaFolletteH., and ShanksN.Brute Science, in press.
7.
LaFolletteH., and ShanksN. (1992). Animal modelling in psychopharmacological contexts.Behavioural and Brain Sciences, in press.
8.
SharpeR. (1988). The Cruel Deception, 288 pp. Wellingborough, UK: Thorsons.
9.
RowanA.N. (1984). Of Mice, Models, & Men: A Critical Evaluation of Animal Research, 323 pp. Albany, NY, USA: SUNY Press.
10.
BrossI.D. (1991). Scientific Fraud vs. Scientific Truth, 224 pp. Buffalo, NY, USA: Buffalo Biomedical Metatechnology Press.
11.
WiebersD.O., AdamsH.P., and WhisnantJ.P. (1990). Animal models of stroke: are they relevant to human disease?Stroke21, 1–3.
12.
ThomasJ.A., HammT.E., PerkinsP.L., and RaffinT.A. (1988). Animal research at Stanford University: principles, policies, and practices.New England Journal of Medicine319, 1630–1632.
13.
KaufmanS.R., ReinesB.P., CaseleH., LawsonL., and LurieJ. (1989). Model No. 42: adenocarcinoma (rat).Perspectives on Animal Research1, Suppl., 15–26.
14.
BrossI.D. (1987). Crimes of Official Science: A Casebook, 83 pp. Buffalo, NY, USA: Buffalo Biomedical Metatechnology Press.
PihlA. (1986). UICC study group on chemo-sensitivity testing of human tumors: problems, applications, future prospects.International Journal of Cancer37, 1–5.
17.
ZbindenG., & Flury-RoversiM. (1981). Significance of the LD50 test for toxicological evaluation of chemical substances.Archives of Toxicology47, 77–99.
18.
WeilC.S., and ScalaR.A. (1971). Study of intra and interlaboratory variability in the results of rabbit eye and skin irritancy tests.Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology19, 276–360.
19.
SwansonD.W. (1983). Eye irritancy testing. In Animals and Alternatives in Toxicity Testing (ed. BallsM., RiddellR.J., WordenA.N.), pp. 337–367. New York: Academic Press.
20.
FreebergF.E., HookerD.T., and GriffithJ.F.Correlation of animal eye test data with human experience for household products: an update.Journal of Toxicology and Cutaneous & Ocular Toxicology5, 115–123.
21.
DaviesR.E., HarperK.H., and KynochS.R. (1972). Inter-species variation in dermal reactivity.Journal of the Society of Cosmetic Chemists23, 371–381.
22.
KligmanA.M. (1982). Assessment of mild irritants. In Principles of Cosmetics for the Dermatologist (ed. FrostP., HorwitzS.N., pp. 265–273. St Louis, MO, USA: Mosby.
23.
PhillipsL. (1972). A comparison of rabbit and human skin response to certain irritants.Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology21, 369–382.
24.
HeywoodR. (1978). Animal studies in drug safety evaluation.Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine71, 686–689.
25.
LewisP.J. (1983). Animal tests for teratogenicity: their relevance to clinical practice. In Drugs and Pregnancy: Human Teratogenesis and Related Problems (ed. HawkinsD.F.), pp. 17–21. Edinburgh, UK: Churchill Livingston.
26.
SchardeinJ.L. (1993). Chemically Induced Birth Defects, 920 pp. New York: Marcel Dekker.
27.
SalsburgD. (1983). The lifetime feeding study in mice and rats: an examination of its validity as a bioassay for human carcinogens.Fundamental and Applied Toxicology3, 63–67.
28.
FreedmanD.A., and ZeiselH. (1988). From mouse to man: the quantitative assessment of cancer risks.Statistical Science3, 3–28.
29.
HansenR.W. (1979). The pharmaceutical development process: estimates of development costs and times and the effects of proposed regulatory changes. In Issues in Pharmaceutical Economics (ed. ChienR.), pp. 151–181. Washington, DC, USA: DC Health.
30.
IrwinS. (1962). Drug screening and evaluative procedures.Science136, 123–128.
31.
HeywoodR. (1989). Clinical toxicity: could it have been predicted? Post market experience. In Animal Toxicity Studies: Their Relevance for Man (ed. LumleyC.E., WalkerS.R.), pp. 57–67. Lancaster, UK: Quay Publishing.
PopperD.R. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 479 pp. New York: Basic Books.
34.
Root-BernsteinR.S. (1989). Discovering.Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press.
35.
ReinesB.P. (1991). On the locus of medical discovery.The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy16, 183–209.
36.
ReinesB.P. (1991). Psychopharmacologic discovery: the relative contributions of clinical and laboratory studies.Perspectives in Medical Research2, 13–26.
37.
BeesonP.B. (1979). The growth of knowledge about a disease: hepatitis.American Journal of Medicine67, 336–370.
38.
ReinesB.P. (1990). On the role of anomaly in Harvey's discovery of the mechanism of the pulse.Perspectives in Biology and Medicine34, 128–133.
39.
BeesonP.B. (1989). Animals in research: context of a quote (Letter).Science245, 1437.
40.
GoodR.A. (1976). Runestones in immunology.Journal of Immunology117, 1413–1428.
41.
SitaramN., and GershonS. (1983). Animal models to clinical testing: promises and pitfalls.Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry7, 227–228.
42.
SitaramN., GershonS., and GershonE.S. (1988). Use of animals in research (Letter).American Journal of Psychiatry145, 653.
43.
Anon. (1991). Animal Research: The Search for Life-Saving Answers, 13 pp. Washington, DC, USA: Department of Health and Human Services.
44.
Anon. (1989). A True Story: All the Facts You Need to Know about Animals and Medical Research. CHF, 14 pp. Canadians for Health Research.
45.
KendallJ. (1991). Scientists say the Final Stages of Most Research Require Use of Animals or Human Subjects.The Oregonian, 25 April 1992.
46.
MaugeriC. (1990). Penn Researchers Cite Human Benefits in Defense of Animal Experimentation (Press Release) 4pp.Penn News, 2 February 1990.
47.
Anon. (1986). Confronting AIDS: Directions for Public Health, Health Care and Research, 374 pp. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press.
48.
NaraP., HatchW., KesslerJ., KelliherJ., and CarterS. (1989). The biology of human immunodeficiency virus 1 IIIB infection in the’ chimpanzee: in vivo and in vitro correlations.Journal of Medical Primatology18, 343–355.
49.
FauciA.S., and FischingerP.J. (1988). The development of an AIDS vaccine: progress and promise.Public Health Reports103, 230–235.
50.
GardnerM.B., and LuciwP.A. (1989). Animal models of AIDS.FASEB Journal3, 2593–2606.
51.
WarrenJ.T., and DolatshahiM. (1992). Worldwide survey of AIDS vaccine challenge studies in non-human primates: vaccines associated with active and passive immune protection from live virus challenge.Journal of Medical Primatology21, 139–186.
52.
EminiE.A., SchleifW.A., NunbergJ.H., ConleyA.J., EdaY., TokiyoshiS., PutneyS.D., MatsuchitaS., CobbK.E., JettC.M., EichbergJ.W., and MurthyK.K. (1992). Prevention of HIV-1 infection in chimpanzees by gpl20 V3 domain-specific monoclonal antibody.Nature355, 728–730.
53.
KorberB., MyersG., and WolinskyS. (1992). Analyses of inter- and intra-patient variation in the V3 loop of the HIV-1 envelope protein. In Vaccines ‘92: Modern Approaches to New Vaccines Including Prevention of AIDS (ed. BrownF., ChanockR.M., GinsbergH.S., LernerR.A.), pp. 75–79. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
54.
KarzonD.T., BolognesiD.P., and KoffW.C. (1992). Development of a vaccine for the prevention of AIDS: a critical appraisal.Vaccine10, 1039–1052.
55.
DeVitaV.T.Jr., HellmanS., and RosenbergS.A. eds (1992). AIDS Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention, 3rd edn, 607 pp. Philadelphia, PA. USA: J.B. Lippincott.
56.
BarnardN., and HouS. (1988). Inherent stress: the tough life in the laboratory routine.Lab Animal17, 21–27.
57.
SilvermanM.S., & La ViaM.F. (1976). Letter to the Editor.Journal of Immunology117, 2270.
58.
FoxM.S. (1986). Laboratory Animal Husbandry, Ethology, Welfare and Experimental Variables, 267 pp. New York: Albany State University of New York Press.
