3.6. Subacute and Subchronic Toxicity

Worth A.P. , & Balls M. eds (2002). Alternative (non-animal) methods for chemicals testing: current status and future prospects. A report prepared by ECVAM and the ECVAM working group on chemicals. ALTA 30, Suppl. 1, 1–125.

Pfaller W. , Balls M. , Clothier R. , Coecke S. , Dierickx P. , Ekwall B. , Hanley B.A. , Hartung T. , Prieto P. , Ryan M. , Schmuck G. , Sladowski D. , Vericat J.A. , Wendel A. , Wolf A. , & Zimmer J. (2001). Novel advanced in vitro methods for long-term toxicity testing. The report and recommendations of ECVAM workshop 45. ATLA 29, 393–426.

Ekwall B. , Cledmenson C. , Ekwall C. , Ring P. , & Romert L. (1999). EDIT: a new international multi-centre programme to develop and evaluate batteries of in vitro tests for acute and chronic systemic toxicity. ATLA 27, 339–349.

Shrivastava R. , John G.W. , Rispat G. , Chevalier A. , & Massingham R. (1991). Can the in vivo maximum tolerated dose be predicted using in vitro techniques? A working hypothesis. ATLA 19, 393–402.

Dierickx P.J. , & Ekwall B. (1992). Long-term cytotoxicity testing of the first twenty MEIC chemicals by the determination of the protein content in human embryonic lung cells. ATLA 20, 285–289.

Scheers E.M. , Ekwall B. , & Dierickx P.J. (2001). In vitro long-term cytotoxicity testing of 27 MEIC chemicals on Hep G2 cells and comparison with acute human toxicity data. Toxicology in Vitro 15, 153–161.

Dierickx P.J. , & Ekwall B. (1993). Long-term cytotoxicity testing of the MEIC chemicals 21–50 by determination of the protein content in human embryonic lung cells. ALTEX 2, 33–36.

Hanley A.B. , McBridge J. , Oehlschlager S. , & Opra E. (1999). Use of a flow bioreactor as a chronic toxicity model system. Toxicology in Vitro 13, 847–851.

Hartung T. (2001). Summary: EU Standards measurements and testing projects PL95-3407. Development of a standardised in vitro methodology for hepatic and renal toxicity testing. ATLA 29, 493–495.

Cronin M.T.D. , Jaworska J.S. , Walker J.D. , Comber M.H.I. , Watts C.D. , & Worth A.P. (2003). Use of QSARs in international decision-making frameworks to predict health effects of chemical substances. Environmental Health Perspectives 111, 1391–1402.

Wolf A. , Schramm U. , Fahr A. , Aicher L. , Crodie A. , Trommer W.E. , & Fricker G. (1998). In vitro evaluation of hepatocellular effects of Cyclosporine A and its derivative SDZ IMM 125. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 284, 817–825.

Gebhardt R. , Hengstler J.G. , Muller D. , Glockner R. , Buenning P. , Laube B. , Schmelzer E. , Ullrich M. , Utesch D. , Hewitt N. , Ringel M. , Hilz B.R. , Bader A. , Langsch A. , Koose T. , Burger H.J. , Maas J. , & Oesch F. (2003). New hepatocyte in vitro system for drug metabolism: metabolic capacity and recommendations for application in basic research and drug development, standard operating procedures. Drug Metabolism Review 35, 145–213.

Muller D. , Steinmetzer P. , Pissowotzki K. , & Glockner R. (2000). Induction of cytochrome P450 2B1-mRNA and pentoxyresorufin O-depentylation after exposure of precision-cut rat liver slices to phenobarbital. Toxicology 144, 93–97.

Guguen–Guillouzo C. , & Guillouzo A. (1983). Modulation of functional activities in cultured rat hepatocytes. Molecular Cell Biochemistry 53/54, 35–56.

Bader A. , Rinkes I.H. , Closs E.I. , Ryan C.M. , Toner M. , Cunningham J.M. , Tompkins R.G. , & Yarmush M.L. (1992). A stable long-term hepatocyte culture system for studies of physiologic processes: cytokine stimulation of the acute phase in rat and human hepatocyte. Biotechnology Progress 8, 219–225.

Loreal O. , Levavasseur F. , Fromaget C. , Gros D. , Guillouzo A. , & Clement B. (1993). Cooperation of Ito cells and hepatocytes in the deposition of an extracellular matrix in vitro. American Journal of Pathology 143, 538–544.

Coecke S. , Rogiers V. , Bayliss M. , Castell J. , Doehmer J. , Fabre G. , Fry J. , Kern A. , & Westmoreland C. (1999). The use of long-term hepatocyte cultures for detecting induction of drug metabolising enzymes: the current status. ATLA 27, 597–638.

Anon. (1999). Development of standardised in vitro methodology for hepatic and renal toxicity testing. EU 4th Framework Programme, EU Standards measurements and testing, SMT4962070. Website http://dbs.cordis.lu/fep-cgi/srchidadb?ACTION=D&SESSION=218962005-2-4&DOC=17&TBL=EN_PROJ&RCN=EP_DUR:36&CALLER=MSS_PROJ_DE (Accessed 4.2.05).

Felder E. , Jennings P. , Seppi T. , & Pfaller W. (2002). LLC-PK1 cells maintained in a new perfusion cell culture system exhibit an improved oxidative metabolism. Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry 12, 153–162.

Schmuck G. , Ahr H.J. , & Schluter G. (2000). Rat cortical neuron cultures: an in vitro model for differentiating mechanisms of chemically induced neurotoxicity. In Vitro and Molecular Toxicology 13, 37–50.

Forsby A. , Pilli F. , Bianchi V. , & Walum E. (1995). Determination of critical cellular neurotoxic concnetrations in human neuroblastoma cell cultures. ATLA 23, 800–811.

Schmuck G. , & Ahr H. (1997). Improved in vitro method for screening organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy. Toxicology in Vitro 11, 263–270.

Norenberg M.D. (1996). Astrocytosis. In The Role of Glia in Neurotoxicology (ed. Aschner M. , & Kimelberg H.K. ), pp. 93–110. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.

Goldoni M. , Vettori M.V. , Alinovi R. , Caglieri A. , Ceccatelli S. , & Mutti A. (2003). Models of neurotoxicity: extrapolation of benchmark doses in vitro. Risk Analysis 23, 505–514.

Deng W. , & Poretz R.D. (2003). Oligodendroglia in developmental neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicology 24, 161–178.

Streit W.J. (1996). The role of microglia in neurotoxicity. In The Role of Glia in Neurotoxicity (ed. Aschner M. , & Kimelberg H.K. ), pp. 3–14. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.

Hanisch U.K. (2002). Microglia as a source and target of cytokines. Glia 40, 140–55.

Gramsbergen J.B. , Leegsma-Vogt G. , Venema K. , Noraberg J. , & Korf J. (2003). Quantitative on-line monitoring of hippocampus glucose and lactate metabolism in organotypic cultures using biosensor technology. Journal of Neurochemistry 85, 399–408.

Honegger P. , & Tschudi-Monnet F. (2001). Aggregating neural cell cultures. In Protocols for Neural Cell Culture (ed. Fedoroff S. , & Richardson A. ), 3rd edn, pp. 199–218. Totowa, NJ, USA: Humana Press.

Atterwill C.K. (1989). Brain reaggregate cultures in neurotoxicological investigations. In In vitro Methods in Toxicology (ed. Atterwill C.K. , & Steele C.E. ), pp. 133–164. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Honegger P. , & Richelson E. (1976). Biochemical differentiation of mechanically dissociated mammalian brain in aggregating cell culture. Brain Research 138, 335–354.

Honegger P. , & Werffeli P. (1988). Use of aggregating cell cultures for toxicological studies. Experientia 44, 817–823.

Dobbs L.G. , Pian M.S. , Maglio M. , Dumars S. , & Allen L. (1997). Maintenance of the differentiated type II cell phenotype by culture with an apical air surface. American Journal of Physiology 273, L347–354.

Gindorf C. , Steimer A. , Lehr C.M. , Bock U. , Schmitz S. , & Haltner E. (2001). Marker transport across biological barriers in vitro: comparison of cell culture models for the gastrointestinal barrier, the blood–brain barrier and the alveolar epithelium of the lung. ALTEX 18, 155–164.

Haller T. , Ortmayr J. , Friedrich F. , Volkl H. , & Dietl P. (1998). Dynamics of surfactant release in alveolar type II cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 95, 1579–1584.

Dietl P. , Haller T. , Mair N. , & Frick M. (2001). Mechanisms of surfactant exocytosis in alveolar type II cells in vitro and in vivo. News in Physiological Sciences 16, 239–243.

Gartner S. , & Kaplan H.S. (1980). Long-term culture of human bone marrow cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 77, 4756–4759.

Sutherland H. , Eaves C. , & Eaves A. (1989). Characterisation and partial purification of human bone marrow cells capable of initiating long-term haematopoiesis in vitro. Blood 74, 1563–1569.

Punzel M. , Wissink S.D. , Miller J.S. , Moore K.A. , Lemischka I.R. , & Verfaillie C.M. (1999). The myeloid-lymphoid initiating cell (ML-IC) assay assesses the fate of multipotent human progenitors in vitro. Blood 93, 3750–3756.

Breems D.A. , Blokland E.A.W. , Neben S. , & Ploemacher R.E. (1994). Frequency analysis of human primitive haematopoietic stem cells subsets using a clobbestone area-forming cell assay. Leukimia 8, 1095.

Nakahata T. , & Ogawa M. (1982). Identification in culture of a class of hemopoietic colony-forming units with extensive capacity to self-renew and generate multipotential hemopoietic colonies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 79, 3843–3847.

Bradley T.R. , & Hodgson G.S. (1979). Detection of primitive macrophage progenitor cells in mouse bone marrow. Blood 54, 1446–1450.

McNiece I.K. , Willians N.T. , Johnson G.R. , Kriegler A.B. , Bradley T.R. , & Hodgson G.S. (1987). Generation of murine haematopoietic precursor cells from macrophage high-proliferative — potential colony-forming cells. Experimental Hematology 9, 972–977.

Hanley A.B. , McBride J. , Oehlschlager S. , & Opara E. (1999). In vitro models for investigations of chronic toxicity and reversibility: use of a flow cell bioreactor as a chronic toxicity model system. Toxicology in Vitro 13, 847–851.

Pazos P. , Fontaner S. , & Prieto P. (2002). Long term in vitro, toxicity models: comparisons between a flow cell bioreactor, a static cell bioreactor, and static cell cultures. ATLA 30, 515–523.

Minuth W.W. , Dermietzel R. , Kloth S. , & Hennerkes B. (1992). A new method culturing renal cells under permanent superfusion and producing a luminal-basal medium gradient. Kidney International 41, 215–219.