This paper compromises a short literary review of the adverse consequences of tobacco smoking on reproduction, as well as on infant and adult health. Furthermore, attention is drawn to the bad effects of smoking on the nutritional status.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
MackanessR. (1985). A Little of What you Fancy. pp 94–95Fontana Paperbacks.
2.
GrantE.C.G. (1982). Allergies, smoking and the contraceptive pill. In: Biological Aspects of Schizophrenia, Ed: HemmingsG, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
3.
BrodieI. Tobbaco moguls say cigarettes are not addictive. The Times, 15th April, 1994.
4.
WynnM.WynnA. (1981). The Prevention of Handicap of Early Pregnancy Origin, pp. 28–33, Foundation for Education and Research in Childbearing, 27 Walpole Street, London SW3.
5.
BarnesB.BradleyS.G. (1990). Planning for a Healthy Baby, pp 96–97, Ebury Press, London.
6.
KellyJ.MathewsK.A.O'ConnorM. (1984). Smoking during pregnancy: effects on mother and the fetus. Br J Obstet Gynaecol., 91, 111–117.
7.
LehtovirtaP.ForssM. (1978). The acute effects of smoking on intravillous blood flow of the placenta. Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 85, 729–731
8.
NaeyeR.L. (1978). Effects of maternal cigarette smoking on the fetus and placenta. Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 85, 732–737.
9.
FribergL.NystromA.SwanbergH. (1959). Transplacental diffusion of carbon monoxide in human subjects. Acta Physiol Scand, 45, 363–368.
10.
HaddonW.NesbittR.E.L.GarciaR. (1961). Smoking and pregnancy: carbon monoxide in blood during gestation and at term. Obstet Gynecol, 18, 262–267.
11.
LongoL.D. (1970). Carbon monoxide in pregnant mother and fetus and its exchange across the placenta. Ann NY Acad Sci, 174, 313–341.
12.
LongoL.D. (1977). The biological effects of carbon monoxide on the pregnant woman fetus and newborn infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 129, 69–103.
13.
AndrewsZ.McGarryJ.M. (1972). A community study on smoking in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw, 79, 1057–1073.
14.
MeyerM.B.JonasB.S.TonasciaJ.A. (1976). Perinatal events associated with maternal smoking in pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol, 103, 464–476.
15.
FrazierT.M.DavisG.H.GoldsteinH. (1961). Cigarette smoking and prematurity: A predictive study. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 81, 988–996.
16.
PetersonW.F.MorenseK.N.KaltreiderD.F. (1965). Smoking and prematurity: A preliminary report based on study of 7740 Caucasians. Obstet Gynecol, 26, 775–779.
SimpsonW.JLindaL. (1957). A preliminary report on cigarette smoking and the incidence of prematurity. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 73, 808–815.
21.
LoweC.R. (1959). Effect of mothers' smoking habits on birth weight of their children. Br Med J, 2, 673–676.
22.
HerriotA.BillewicsW.Z.HyttenF.E. (1962). Cigarette smoking in pregnancy. The Lancet, 1, 771–773.
23.
O'LaneJ.M. (1963). Some fetal effects of maternal cigarette smoking. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 22, 181–184.
24.
ZabriskieJ.R. (1963). Efffect of cigarette smoking during pregnancy: Study of 2000 cases. Obstet Gynecol, 21, 405–411.
25.
MacMahonB.AlpertM.SalberE.J.: (1965). Infant weight and parental smoking habits. Am J Epidemiol, 82, 247–261.
26.
RavenholtR.T.LevinskiM.J. (1965). Smoking during pregnancy. The Lancet, 1, 961.
27.
UnderwoodP.HesterL.L.LatifffeT. (1965). The relationship of smoking to the outcome of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 91, 270–276.
28.
AlbernathyJ.R.GreenbergB.G.WellsH.B. (1966). Smoking as independent variable in a multiple regression analysis upon birth weight and gestation. Am J Public Health, 56, 626–633.
29.
RavenholtR.T.LevinskiM.J.NellistD.J. (1966). Effects of smoking upon reproduction. Am J Obstet Gynecol., 96, 267–281.
30.
RussellC.ScottT.R.MaddisonR.N. (1966). Some effects of smoking in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw, 73, 742–746.
31.
UnderwoodP.B.KeslerK.F.O'LaneJ.M. (1967). Parental smoking empirically related to pregnancy outcome. Obestet Gynecol, 29, 1–8.
32.
MulcahyR. (1968). Effect of age, parity, and cigarette smoking on outcome of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 101, 844–849.
33.
ButlerR.N.AlbermanE.D. (1969). Perinatal Problems, p. 82. Livingstone, London and Edinburgh.
34.
RantakallioP. (1969). Groups at risk in low birth weight infants and perinatal mortality. Acta Paediatr Scand, 193 (Suppl), 1–71.
35.
BaileyR.R. (1970). The effect of maternal smoking on the infant birthweight. NZ Med J, 71, 293–294.
36.
ComstockG.W.ShahF.K.MeyerM.B.AbbeyH. (1971). Low birth weight and neonatal mortality rate related to maternal smoking and socioeconomic status. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 111, 53–59.
37.
ButlerN.R.GoldsteinH.RossE.M. (1972). Cigarette smoking in pregnancy: its influence on birth weight and perinatal mortality. Br Med J, 2, 127–130.
38.
RushD.KassE.H. (1972). Maternal smoking, A reassessment of the association with perinatal mortality. Am J Epidemiol, 96(3), 183–196.
39.
ChamberlainG.PhilippE.HowlettB.MastersK. (1978). British Births 1970, Vol: 2, Obstetric Care, Heineman, London.
40.
MeyerM.B. (1978). How does maternal smoking affect birth weight and maternal weight gain. Am J Obstet, Gynecol, 131, 888–893.
41.
PerssonP.H.GrennertL.GensserG.KullanderS. (1978). A study of smoking during pregnancy with special reference to fetal growth. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, Suppl., 78, 33–39.
42.
Landesman-DwyerS.EmanuelI. (1979). Smoking during pregnancy. Teratology, 19, 119–126.
NaeyeR.L. (1981). Influence of maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy on fetal and childhood growth. Obstet Gynecol., 57, 18.
45.
NaeyeR.L.TafariN. (1983). Risk factors in Pregnancy, Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn. Baltimore, MD, Williams & Wilkins Co.
46.
RushD.CassanoP. (1983). Relationship of cigarette smoking and social class to birth weight and perinatal mortality among all births in Britain, 5–10 April, 1970. J Epidemiol Community Health, 37(4), 249–255.
47.
NaeyeR.L.PetersE.C. (1984). Mental development of children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol, 64(5), 601–607.
48.
SavelL.E.RothE. (1962). Effects of smoking in pregnancy: A continuing retrospective study. Obstet Gynecol, 20, 313–316.
49.
YerushalmyJ. (1964). Mother's cigarette smoking and survival of infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 88, 505–518.
50.
ComstockG.W.LundinF.E. (1967). Parental Smoking and perinatal mortality. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 98, 708–718.
51.
Perinatal Mortality Study, Ten University Teaching Hospitals, Ontario, Canada (1967). Publ: The Ontario Department of Health, Toronto, p. 173.
52.
ButlerN.R.AlbermanE.D. (1969). Perinatal Problems: The Second Report of the 1958 British Perinatal Mortality Survey. Edinburgh, Livingstone.
53.
KullanderS.KallenB. (1971). A prospective study of smoking in pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 50, 83–94.
54.
PalmgrenB.WallanderB. (1971). Cigarettesokning och abort: kondervativ prospectiv undersokning av 4312 graviditeter. Lakartidningen, 68, 2611–2616.
55.
The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General (1973). U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1039(10), 123–137.
56.
MeyerM.B.TonasciaJ.A.BuckC. (1974). The interrelationship of maternal smoking and increased perinatal mortality with other risk factors. Further analysis of the Ontario Perinatal Mortality Study. Am J Epidemiol, 100, 443–452.
57.
HimmelbergerD.V.BrownB.W.CohenE.N. (1978). Cigarette smoking during pregnancy and the occurrence of spontaneous abortion and congenital malformation. Am J Epidemiol, 108, 470–479.
58.
KlineJ.O.SteinZ.A.SusserM.WarburtonD. (1977). Smoking: a risk factor for spontaneous abortion. N Engl J Med, 297, 793–796.
59.
McKeanH.E. (1978). Smoking and abortion. N Engl J Med, 298, 113–114.
60.
RantakallioP. (1978). Relationship of maternal smoking to morbidity and mortality of the child up to age of five. Acta Paediatr Scand, 67, 621–631.
61.
FergussonD.M.HorwoodL.J.ShannonF.T. (1979). Smoking during pregnancy. N.Z. Med J, 8941–43.
62.
GoujardS.RumeauC.SchwartzN. (1965). Smoking during pregnancy, stillbirth and abruptio placentae. Biomedicine, 23, 20–22.
63.
FieldingJ.E.RossoP.K. (1978). Smoking during pregnancy. N Engl J Med, 298, 333–339.
64.
NaeyeR. (1979). The duration of maternal cigarette smoking and placental disorders. Early Hum Dev, 3, 229–237.
65.
HaworthJ.C.FordJ.C. (1972). Comparison of the effects of maternal undernutrition and exposure to cigarette smoke on the cellular growth of the rat fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 112, 653.
66.
LeuchtenbergerC.LeuchtenbergerR.RitterD.InuiN. (1973). Effects of marihuana and tobacco smoke on DNA and chromosomal complacement in human lung extracts, Nature, 242, 403.
67.
YagerH. (1969). Alveolar cells: depressant effect of cigarette smoke on protein synthesis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 131, 147–150.
68.
BridgesB.A.ClemmensenJ.SugimuraT. (1979). Cigarette smoking does it carry genetic risk?Mutat Res, 65, 71–81.
69.
U.S. Public Health Service (1980). The Health Consequences of Smoking for Women: A Report of the U.S. Surgeon-General, Office of Smoking and Health, U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services, Rockville MD.
70.
KelseyJ.L.TheodoreR.H.BrackenM.B. (1978). Maternal smoking and congenital malformations: An epidemiological study. J Epidem Community Health, 32, 103–107.
71.
SontagL.W.WallaceR.F. (1935). The effects of cigarette smoking during pregnancy upon the fetal heart rate. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 29, 77–83.
72.
HellmanL.M.JohnsonH.L.TollesW.E. (1961) Some factors affecting fetal heart rate. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 82, 1055–1063.
73.
FrederickJ.AlbermanE.GoldsteinH. (1971). Possible teratogenic effect of cigarette smoking. Nature, 231, 529–530.
74.
HemsworthB.N. (1981). Deformation of the mouse foetus after ingestion of nicotine by the male. IRCS Medical Science, 9, 728–729.
75.
GustavsonK.H.HagbergB.HagbergG.SarsK. (1977). Severe mental retardation in a Swedish country. Neuropadiatrie, 8, 293–304.
76.
BernardP. (1962). Die Wirkung des Rauchens auf Frau and Mutter. Munch Med Wochenschr, 104, 1826.
77.
JickH.PorterJ.MorrisonA.S. (1977). Relation between smoking and age of natural menopause. The Lancet, 1, 1354–1355.
78.
LinquistO.BengtssonC. (1979). Menopausal age in relation to smoking. Acta Med Scand, 205, 73–77.
79.
CampbellA.M. (1935). Excessive cigarette smoking in women and its effect upon their reproductive efficiency. J Mich Med Soc, 34, 146–151.
80.
ViczianM. (1969). Ergebnisse von Spermautersuchungen bei Zigarettenrauchen. Z Haut Geschlecktskr, 44183–187.
81.
CampbellJ.M.HarrisonK.L. (1979). Smoking and infertility. Med J Austr, 1, 342–343.
82.
KulikauskasV.BlausteinD.AblinR.J. (1985). Cigarette smoking and its possible effect on sperm. Fertil Steril, 44, 526–528.
83.
HandelsmanD.J.ConwayA.J.BoylanL.M.TurtleJ.R. (1984). Testicular function in potential sperm donors: normal ranges and the effects of smoking and varicocele. Int J Androl, 7, 369–382.
84.
RantalaM.L.KoskimiesA.I. (1986). Semen quality of infertile couples—comparison between smokers and non-smokers. Andrologia, 19, 42–46.
85.
SaaranenM.SuonioS.KauhanenO.SaarikoskiS. (1986). Tupakka ja siemennesteen laatu. Suomen Laakarilehti, 36, 3466–3470.
86.
BriggsM.H. (1973). Cigarette smoking and infertility in men. Med J Austr, 1, 616.
87.
EvansH.J.FletcherJ.TorranceM.HardgreaveT.B. (1981). Sperm abnormalities and cigarette smoking. The Lancet, 1, 627–629.
88.
WichmanL. (1992). The value of semen analysis in predicting pregnancy. Acta Universitatis Temperensis, ser A, vol 346.
89.
SilvetteH.LarsonP.S.HaagH.B. (1967). Immunological aspects of tobacco smoke. Am J Med Sci, 234, 561–589.
90.
EsberH.J.MenningerF.F.BogdenA.E.MasonM.M. (1973). Immunological deficiency associated with cigarette smoke inhalation by mice. Arch Environ Health, 27, 99.
91.
RoszmanT.L.RogersA.S. (1973). The immunosuppressive potential of products derived from cigarette smoke. Am Rev Resp Dis, 108, 1158–1163.
92.
ThomasW.HoltP.G.KeastD. (1973). Effect of cigarette smoking on primary and secondary humoral response of mice. Nature, 234, 240–241.
93.
ThomasW.R.HoltP.G.KeastD. (1975). Humoral immune response of mice chronically exposed to cigarette smoke. Arch Environ Health, 30, 78–80.
94.
HoltP.G.KeastD.MackenzieJ.S. (1978). Immunosuppression in the mouse induced by long-term exposure to cigarette smoke. Am J Pathol, 90, 281–284.
95.
KraalJ.H. (1978). Immunoglobulin levels in relation to smoking and coffee consumption. Am J Clin Nutr, 31, 198–200.
96.
GulsvikA.FagerholM.K. (1979). Smoking and immuno-globulin levels. The Lancet, 1, 449.
97.
ButlerN.R.GoldsteinM. (1973). Smoking during pregnancy and subsequent child development. Br Med J, 4, 573–575.
98.
DensonR.NansonI.L.McWattersM.A. (1975). Hyperkinesis and maternal smoking. Can Psychiatr Assoc J, 20, 183.
99.
RantakallioP. (1978). The effect of maternal smoking on birthweight and the subsequent health of the child. Early Hum Dev, 2, 371–382.
100.
RantakallioP. (1979). Social background of mothers who smoked during pregnancy and the influence of these factors on the offspring. Soc Sci Med, 13A, 423–429.
101.
RantakallioP. (1983). A follow-up study up to the age of 14 of children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Acta Pediatr Scand, 72, 747.
102.
SaxtonD.W. (1978). The behaviour of infants whose mothers smoke in pregnancy. Early Hum Dev, 2, 363.
103.
RantakallioP.LaaraE.IsohanniM.MoilanenI. (1992). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and delinquency of the offspring: an association without causation?Int J Epidemiol, 21, 1106–1113.
104.
OstergaardK. (1977). The concentration of cadmium in renal tissue from smokers and non-smokers. Acta Med Scand, 202, 193–195.
105.
KjeldsenK. (1969). Smoking and atherosclerosis. Munksgaard, Copenhagen.
106.
HoltP.G.ThomasW.R.KeastD. (1973). Smoking and immunity. The Lancet, 1, 1316.
107.
FinkleaJ.F.HasselbladV. (1971). Cigarette smoking and hemagglutination inhibition response to influenza after natural disease of immunization. Am Rev Resp Dis, 104, 368.
108.
DemarestG.B.HudsonL.D.AltmanL.C. (1979). Impaired alveolar macrophage chemitaxis in patients with acute smoke inhalation. Am Rev Resp Dis, 119, 276–286.
109.
NymandG. (1974). Maternal smoking and immunity. The Lancet, II, 1379.
MaxwellG.MerryM.D. (1959). Tobacco hypoglycaemia. Ann Int Med, 50, 1149–1157.
112.
Hypoglycaemia and PersonalityBr Med J, p. 134, April, 20, 1974.
113.
TuormaaT.E. (1991). An Alternative to Psychiatry, pp. 132–161(refs. therein). The Book Guild Ltd.
114.
WilderJ. (1943). Psychological problems in hypoglycaemia. Am J Digest Dis, 10, 11, 428–435.
115.
LandmannH.R.SutherlandR.L. (1950). Incidence and significance of hypoglycaemia in unselected admissions to a psychosomatic service. Am J Digest Dis, 105–108, April.
116.
GormanJ.M.MartinezJ.M.LiebowitzM.R.FryerA.J.KleinD.F. (1984). Hypoglycaemia and panic attacks. Am J Psychiatr, 141(1), 101–102.
117.
RynaersonE.H.MoerschF.P. (1934). Neurologic manifestations of hyperinsulinism and other hypoglycaemic states. J Am Med Assoc, 1196–1199, October 20.
118.
JonesM.S. (1935). Hypoglycaemia in the neuroses. Br Med J, 945–946.
119.
SalzerH.M. (1966). Relative hypoglycaemia as a cause of neuropsychiatric illness. J. Nat Med Assoc, 12–17, January.
120.
MoiersR.L. (1973). Relative hypoglycaemia in schizophrenia. pp. 252–462. Orthomolecular Psychiatry, Eds: HawkinsD.PaulingL., W.H. Freeman & Co.
NandiM.SloneD.JickH.ShapiroS.LewisG.P. (1969). Cadmium content of cigarettes. The Lancet, 2, 1329.
124.
LewisG.P.CoughlinL.L.JuskoJ.W.HartzS. (1972). Contribution of cigarette smoking to cadmium accumulation in man. The Lancet, 1, 291.
125.
LewisG.P.JuskoW.J.CoughlinL. (1972). Cadmium accumulation in man: influence of smoking, occupation, alcohol habit and disease. J. Chronic Dis, 25, 717.
126.
MendenE.E.EliaV.J.MichaelL.W.PeteringH.G. (1972). Distribution of cadmium and nickel of tobacco during cigarette smoking. Environ Sci Technol, 6, 830.
127.
Cadmium in the environment and its significance to man (1980). U.K. Department of the Environment, Pollution Paper No. 17, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
128.
HammerD.I.CalocciA.V.HasselbladV.WilliamsM.E.PinkertonC. (1973). Cadmium and lead in autopsy tissue. J Occup Med, 15, 956.
129.
SchroederH.A.WintonW.H. (1962). Hypertension induced in rats by small doses of cadmium. Am J Physiol, 202, 515.
130.
LenerJ.BibrB. (1971). Cadmium and hypertension. The Lancet, 1, 970.
131.
KallerupH.E.Kierkegord-HansenG.HansenJ.C. (1976). Exposure to cadmium as a possible precipitating factor in connective tissue disease. Ugerskr Laeger, 138, 1396.
132.
WardN.I.WatsonR.Bryce-SmithD. (1987). Placental element levels in relation to fetal development for obstetrically normal births: A study of 37 elements. Evidence for effects of cadmium, lead and zinc on fetal growth, and smoking as a cause of cadmium. Int J Biosocial Res, 9(1), 63–81.
133.
SiegersC.P.JungblutJ.R.KlinkF.OberhauserF. (1983). Effects of smoking on cadmium and lead concentrations in human amniotic fluid. Toxicol Letters, 19(3), 327–331.
134.
WardN.I. (1994). The effect of cadmium from smoking activity (non, active and passive) on the outcome of pregnancy. Foresight Spring Newsletter, pp. 10–13.
135.
KuhnertB.R.KuhnertP.M.(1992). Smoking alters the relationship between maternal zinc intake and biochemical indices of foetal zinc status. Am J Clin Nutr, 55, 981–984.
136.
KuhnertP.M.KuhnertB.R.ErhardP.(1987). The effect of smoking on placental and fetal zinc status. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 157, 1241–1246.
137.
CarmichaelN.G.BackhouseB.L.WinderC.LewisP.D. (1982). Teratogenicity, toxicity, and perinatal effects of cadmium. Human Toxicol, 1, 159–186.
138.
PelletierO. (1977). Vitamin C and tobacco. In: HanckA.RitzelG.: Re-evaluation of Vitamin C. Int J Vit Nutr Res, Suppl. 16.
139.
WidemanG.L.BairdG.H.BoldingO.T. (1964). Ascorbic acid deficiency and premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 88, 592–595.
MoynihanE.J. (1979). Trace elements in man. Phil Trans R Soc, London, 288, 65.
142.
GrantE. (1994). Sexual Chemistry. p. 135, Cedar Publications.
143.
DavidoffG.N.VotawM.L.CoonW.W.HultquistF.A.FilterE.E.WexlerB.J. (1978). Elevations in serum copper, erythrocyte copper and ceruloplasmin concentrations in smokers. Am J Clin Path, 75, 790.
144.
HalliwellB. (1993). Free radicals and vascular disease: how much do we know?Br Med J, 307, 885.
145.
HalliwellB. (1993). Cigarette smoking and health: a radical view. J Roy Soc Health, April, 91–96.
146.
GoldingJ. (1994). The Consequences of Smoking in Pregnancy. Talk given to a conference on Smoking in Pregnancy commissioned by the Health Education Authority, 2nd February.
147.
CrawfordM.A. (1992). Maternal nutrition before conception and the prevention of neurodevelopmental disorders. The McCarrison Society Newsletter, Winter.
148.
CrawfordM.A.DoyleW.LeafA.LeighfieldM. (1993). Nutrition and neurodevelopmental disorders. Nutrition and Health, 9, 81–97.
149.
BarkerD.J.P.BullA.R.OsmondC.SimondsS.J. (1990). Foetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. Br Med J, 301, 259–262.
150.
BarkerD.J.P.WinterP.D.OsmondC. (1989). Weight in infancy and death from coronary heart disease. The Lancet, II, 577–580.
151.
BarkerD.J. P. (1989). Growth in uterus, blood pressure in childhood and adult life, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Br Med J, 298, 564–567.
152.
HalesC.N.BarkerD.J.P. (1991). Foetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. Br Med J, 303, 1019–1022.
153.
BelseyM. (1993). The world health evidence: the mother is the key to the next generation. Nutrition and Health, 9, 75–80.
154.
CarlsenE.GewercmanA.KeidingN.SkakkebaekN.E. (1992). Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. Br Med J, 305, 609–612.
155.
FoxM. (1994). Oestrogen mimics. Green Network News, pp. 14–15.
