Although ethical leadership has been referred to as the basis of ethical judgements, the newer research identifies a perplexing conflict: It can be both an ethical agent and something that creates an ethical dilemma. The present study investigates these contradictions in an interdisciplinary context by leveraging data in philosophical anthropology, organizational behaviour and cognitive psychology. We highlight some of the limits of existing ethical leadership frameworks and use the PRISMA framework and a tailored TCCM model to connect 46 peer-reviewed Scopus and ABDC articles published from 2000 to 2024. The models are inaccurate when contextual boundaries, ethical nuance and implications of new technology are considered. We offer the adaptive ethical leadership paradox (AELP) model in exchange, which remaps ethical leadership as a dynamic negotiation among four interdependent factors: (a) the ethical dissonance cycle, (b) the situational ethics modulator, (c) the cognitive reflexivity loop and (d) the AI and digital ethics layer. The model is superior to conventional descriptive literature reviews because it provides a novel theoretical account of ethical leadership. It addresses static ethical models and introduces a new, interdisciplinary model for leadership ethics. Drawing on philosophical, psychological and technology ethics, the AELP model provides guidance for understanding leadership ethics, the governance of AI and organizational dynamics—all areas where consolidating knowledge from different disciplines could prove valuable.
AhmadR., NejatiM., Farr-WhartonB., & BentleyT. (2024). Impact of leadership on unethical pro-organizational behavior: A systematic literature review and future research directions. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 31(3), 338–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518241265399
2.
AhmedM., & Ishfaq KhanM. (2024). Unpacking the paradoxical impact of ethical leadership on employees’ pro-social rule-breaking behavior: The interplay of employees’ psychological capital and moral identity. PLOS ONE, 19(8), e0306912. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306912
3.
AhmedM., & KhanM. I. (2023). Beyond the universal perception: Unveiling the paradoxical impact of ethical leadership on employees’ unethical pro-organizational behavior. Heliyon, 9(11), e21618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21618
4.
AvolioB. J., GardnerW. L., WalumbwaF. O., LuthansF., & MayD. R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviours. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(6), 801–823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.003
5.
BabalolaM. T., MawritzM. B., GreenbaumR. L., RenS., & GarbaO. A. (2021). Whatever it takes: How and when supervisor bottom-line mentality motivates employee contributions in the workplace. Journal of Management, 47(5), 1134–1154, https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320902521
6.
BabalolaM. T., RenS., KobinahT., QuY. E., GarbaO. A. & GuoL. (2019). Negative workplace gossip: Its impact on customer service performance and moderating roles of trait mindfulness and forgiveness. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 80, 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.02.007
7.
BanduraA. (1999). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2(1), 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-839X.00024
8.
BanksG. C., McCauleyK. D., GardnerW. L., & GulerC. E. (2016). A meta-analytic review of authentic and transformational leadership: A test for redundancy. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(4), 634–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.02.006
9.
BarometerE. T. (2021). Edelman trust barometer. https://www.lewissilkin.com/our-thinking/future-of-work-hub/insights/2021/11/17/2021-edelman-trust-barometer.
10.
BasaadS., BajabaS., & BasahalA. (2023). Uncovering the dark side of leadership: How exploitative leaders fuel unethical pro-organizational behavior through moral disengagement. Cogent Business & Management, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2023.2233775
11.
BatsonC. D., ThompsonE. R., SeuferlingG., WhitneyH., & StrongmanJ. A. (1999). Moral hypocrisy: Appearing moral to oneself without being so. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.525
12.
BediA., AlpaslanC. M., & GreenS. (2016). A meta-analytic review of ethical leadership outcomes and moderators. Journal of Business Ethics, 139(3), 517–536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2625-1
13.
BenlahceneA., SaoulaO, JaganathanM, RamdaniA., & AlQershiN. A. (2022). The dark side of leadership: How ineffective training and poor ethics education trigger unethical behavior?Frontiers of Psychology, 13, 1063735. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1063735
14.
BirdA., & MendenhallM. E. (2016). From cross-cultural management to global leadership: Evolution and adaptation. Journal of World Business, 51(1), 115–126. https://doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.005
15.
BrownM. E., TreviñoL. K., & HarrisonD. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002
16.
ChenA., & TreviñoL. K. (2023). The consequences of ethical voice inside the organization: An integrative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108(8), 1316.
17.
ChengJ., ZhangL., HeM., & YaoY. (2024). How does ethical leadership influence work engagement in project-based organizations? A sensemaking perspective. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 45(4), 683–701. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-03-2023-0139
18.
CrossanM. M., LaneH. W., & WhiteR. E. (1999). An organizational learning framework: From intuition to institution. Academy of Management Review, 24(3), 522–537. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1999.2202135
19.
DayD. V., RiggioR. E., TanS. J., & CongerJ. A. (2021). Advancing the science of 21st-century leadership development: Theory, research, and practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 32(5), 101557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101557
20.
DewanganD. K. (2024). Psychological insights in leadership and decision-making for organizational growth: A qualitative study. IUP Journal of Business Strategy, 21(3), 46–61. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/psychological-insights-leadership-decision-making/docview/3194287992/se-2
21.
DonthuN., KumarS., MukherjeeD., PandeyN., & LimW. M. (2021). How to conduct a bibliometric analysis: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 133, 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.04.070
22.
DorfleitnerG., KreuzerC., & SparrerC. (2022). To sin in secret is no sin at all: On the linkage of policy, society, culture, and firm characteristics with corporate scandals. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 202, 762–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2022.08.027
23.
DromantaitėA. (2022). The dark side of leadership in the organization: What it is and how to control it. LOGOS, 112, 201–208. https://doi.org/10.24101/logos.2022.62
24.
EdwardsK., & GoussiosA. (2021). Who is responsible for compassion satisfaction? Shifting ethical responsibility for compassion fatigue from the individual to the ecological. Ethics and Social Welfare, 15(3), 246–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/17496535.2021.1888141
25.
ElbersA., KolominskiS., & Blesa AledoP. S. (2023). Coping with dark leadership: Examination of the impact of psychological capital on the relationship between dark leaders and employees’ basic need satisfaction in the workplace. Administrative Sciences, 13(4), 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci13040096
26.
EnwereuzorI. K., OnyishiI. E., Albi-OparaochaF. C., & AmaeshiK. (2020). Perceived leader integrity as a mediator between ethical leadership and ethical climate in a teaching context. BMC Psychology, 8, 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00420-6
27.
FranzkeA. S. (2022). An exploratory qualitative analysis of AI ethics guidelines. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 20(4), 401–423. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-12-2020-0125
28.
FuJ., LongY., HeQ., & LiuY. (2020). Can ethical leadership improve employees’ well-being at work? Another side of ethical leadership based on organizational citizenship anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1478. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01478
29.
GardnerW. L., & MartinkoM. J. (1988). Impression management in organizations. Journal of Management, 14(2), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638801400210
30.
GhamrawiN., Abu-ShawishR. K., ShalT., & GhamrawiN. A. R. (2024). Destructive leadership behaviours: The case of academic middle leaders in higher education. International Journal of Educational Research, 126, 102382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2024.102382
31.
GrahamJ. R., LiS., & QiuJ. (2008). Corporate misreporting and bank loan contracting. Journal of Financial Economics, 89(1), 44–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2007.08.005
32.
GrahamK. A., ZiegertJ. C., & CapitanoJ. (2015). The effect of leadership style, framing, and promotion regulatory focus on unethical pro-organizational behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 126(3), 423–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1952-3
33.
HajarE. H., OmarT., BilalE. A., & KhaoulaS. (2023). An assessment of ethics in a cross-cultural organizational context: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Organizational Leadership, 12(4), 512–535. https://doi.org/10.33844/ijol.2023.60393
34.
HankwitzM. (2022). Atlas of AI: Power, politics, and the planetary costs of artificial intelligence. Leonardo, 55(3), 311–313. https://doi.org/10.1162/leon_r_02206
35.
HannahS. T., AvolioB. J., & WalumbwaF. O. (2011). Relationships between authentic leadership, moral courage, and ethical and pro-social behaviors. Business Ethics Quarterly, 21(4), 555–578. https://doi.org/10.5840/beq201121436
36.
HongQ. N., FàbreguesS., BartlettG., BoardmanF., CargoM., DagenaisP., GagnonM., GriffithsF., NicolauB., O’CathainA., RousseauM., VedelI., & PluyeP. (2018). The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 for information professionals and researchers. Education for Information, 34(4), 285–291. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-180221
37.
JulmiC. (2021). Crazy, stupid, disobedience: The dark side of paradoxical leadership. Leadership, 17(6), 631–653. https://doi.org/10.1177/17427150211040693
38.
KalshovenK., Van DijkH., & BoonC. (2016). Why and when does ethical leadership evoke unethical follower behavior?Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31(2), 500–515. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2014-0314
39.
KantI. (1785). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). New Haven.
40.
Karakitapoğlu-AygünZ., GumusluogluL., ErturkA., & ScanduraT. A. (2023). What if authoritarian to all or to some? A multi-level investigation of within-team differentiation in authoritarian leadership. Journal of Business Research, 162, 113873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.113873
41.
LinS., ChenS., & LiuX. (2023). The dark side of empowering leadership: How empowering leadership affects unethical pro-organizational behavior in construction projects. Buildings, 13, 2640. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102640
42.
MackeyA., & GassS. M. (2015). Second language research: Methodology and design. Routledge.
43.
MackeyJ. D., EllenB. P., McAllisterC. P., & AlexanderK. C. (2020). The dark side of leadership: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of destructive leadership research. Journal of Business Research, 123, 123–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.10.037
44.
ManyangadziW., & AprilW. I. (2023). Anthropology and entrepreneurship: Philosophical context. In Context, policy, and practices in indigenous and cultural entrepreneurship (pp. 192–205). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-7578-2.ch010
45.
MathieuC., NeumannC. S., HareR. D., & BabiakP. (2014). A dark side of leadership: Corporate psychopathy and its influence on employee well-being and job satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 59, pp. 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.11.010
46.
MazarN., AmirO., & ArielyD. (2008). The dishonesty of honest people: A theory of self-concept maintenance. Journal of Marketing Research, 45(6), 633–644. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.45.6.633
47.
MevoldC. A. (2023). From biases to brilliance an interpretative phenomenological analysis of the connection between leadership experience and decision-making style to explore the influence of cognitive biases on decision-making and leadership potential (Master’s thesis, NTNU). https://hdl.handle.net/11250/3099841
48.
MiaoQ., EvaN., NewmanA., NielsenI., & HerbertK. (2020). Ethical leadership and unethical pro‐organisational behaviour: The mediating mechanism of reflective moral attentiveness. Applied Psychology, 69(3), 834–853. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12210
49.
MiaoQ., NewmanA., YuJ., & XuL. (2013). The relationship between ethical leadership and unethical pro-organizational behavior: Linear or curvilinear effects?Journal of Business Ethics, 116, 641–653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1504-2
50.
O’KeefeD. F., HowellG. T., & SquiresE. C. (2019). Ethical leadership begets ethical leadership: Exploring situational moderators of the trickle-down effect. Ethics & Behavior, 30(8), 581–600. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2019.1649676
51.
OplatkaI. (2016). ‘Irresponsible leadership’ and unethical practices in schools: A conceptual framework of the ‘dark side’ of educational leadership. In The dark side of leadership: Identifying and overcoming unethical practice in organizations (pp. 1–18). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
52.
PageM. J., McKenzieJ. E., BossuytP. M., BoutronI., HoffmannT. C., MulrowC. D., ShamseerL., TetzlaffJ. M., AklE. A., BrennanS. E., ChouR., GlanvilleJ., GrimshawJ. M., HróbjartssonA., LaluM. M., LiT., LoderE. W., Mayo-WilsonE., McDonaldS., … MoherD. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. bmj, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
53.
PaulJ., & CriadoA. R. (2020). The art of writing literature review: What do we know and what do we need to know?International Business Review, 29(4), 101717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2020.101717
54.
PaulJ., KhatriP., & Kaur DuggalH. (2023). Frameworks for developing impactful systematic literature reviews and theory building: What, why and how?Journal of Decision Systems, 33(4), 537–550. https://doi:10.1080/12460125.2023.2197700
55.
PaulJ., LimW. M., & O’cassA. (2021). Scientific procedures and rationales for systematic literature reviews (SPAR-4-SLR). International Journal of Consumer Studies, 45(4). https://doi:10.1111/ijcs.12695
56.
PaulJ., & Rosado-SerranoA. (2019). Gradual internationalization vs born-global/international new venture models: A review and research agenda. International Marketing Review, 36(6), 830–858. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-10-2018-0280
57.
PlessnerH. (2019). Levels of organic life and the human: An introduction to philosophical anthropology. Fordham University Press.
58.
QasimM., IrshadM., MajeedM., & RizviS. T. H. (2022). Examining impact of Islamic work ethic on task performance: Mediating effect of psychological capital and a moderating role of ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 180, 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04916-y
59.
RaufA. A. (2021). New moralities for new media? Assessing the role of social media in acts of terror and providing points of deliberation for business ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 170(2), 229–251. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45386806
60.
Ruiz-PalominoP., & Linuesa-LangreoJ. (2018). Implications of person–situation interactions for Machiavellians’ unethical tendencies: The buffering role of managerial ethical leadership. European Management Journal, 36(2), pp. 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2018.01.004
61.
SandersonC., DouglasD., LuQ., SchleigerE., WhittleJ., LaceyJ., NewnhamG., HajkowiczS., RobinsonC., & HansenD. (2023). AI ethics principles in practice: Perspectives of designers and developers. In IEEE Transactions on Technology and Society, 4(2), 171–187. https://doi.org/10.1109/TTS.2023.3257303
62.
SarwarH., IshaqM. I., AminA., & AhmedR. (2020). Ethical leadership, work engagement, employees’ well-being, and performance: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(12), 2008–2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1788039
63.
SchelerM. (1973). Selected philosophical essays. Northwestern University Press.
64.
ShahabH., ZahurH., AkhtarN., & RashidS. (2021). Characteristics of ethical leadership: Themes identification through convergent parallel mixed method design from the Pakistan context. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 787796. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.787796
65.
ShawJ. B., EricksonA., & HarveyM. (2011). A method for measuring destructive leadership and identifying types of destructive leaders in organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(4), 575–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.05.001
66.
ShuL. L., GinoF., & BazermanM. H. (2011). Dishonest deed, clear conscience: When cheating leads to moral disengagement and motivated forgetting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(3), 330–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211398138
67.
TakalaT. (2009). Dark-side of charisma: Elements of irresponsible management. Turkish Journal of Business Ethics, 2(4), 43–64.
68.
TangP. M., YamK. C., & KoopmanJ. (2020). Feeling proud but guilty? Unpacking the paradoxical nature of unethical pro-organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 160, 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.03.004
69.
Te BrakeH., & NautaB. (2022). Caught between is and ought: The moral dissonance model. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 906231. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.906231
70.
TianX., & TangY. (2025). The long-term impact of moral education on college students’ psychological well-being: A longitudinal study revealing multidimensional synergistic mechanisms. Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020217
71.
TranfieldD., DenyerD., & SmartP. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British Journal of Management, 14(3), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375
72.
UmphressE. E., & BinghamJ. B. (2011). When employees do bad things for good reasons: Examining unethical pro-organizational behaviors. Organization Science, 22(3), 621–640. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1100.0559
73.
Van EckN., & WaltmanL. (2010). Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics, 84(2), 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-009-0146-3
74.
VasconcelosA. F. (2023). Organizational incivility: A conceptual framework. Society and Business Review, 18(3): 484–503. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBR-08-2022-0209
75.
VinceR., & MazenA. (2014). Violent innocence: A contradiction at the heart of leadership. Organization Studies, 35(2), 189–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840613511924
76.
ZhangX., TianG., MaC., TianY., LiZ., & LiangL. (2021). ‘Too much of a good thing?’: Exploring the dark side of empowering leadership by linking it with unethical pro-organizational behavior. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 42(1), 32–46. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-02-2020-0033
77.
ZhaoX., MaX., ChenB., ShangY., & SongM. (2022). Challenges toward carbon neutrality in China: Strategies and countermeasures. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 176, 105959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105959
