Leader flexibility is considered necessary for leader effectiveness. However, there is limited research on antecedents of leader flexibility and its effect on leader effectiveness. This study, based on the leaderplex model, examines how multiple leader attributes influence leader effectiveness and subordinates’ work behaviour and attitudes through leader behavioural complexity, an indicator of leader flexibility and ability to manage complexity. A total of 134 senior-level executives and their subordinates from 12 manufacturing organizations participated. Executives and their subordinates filled separate questionnaires. The executives provided data for their sociodemographics along with their cognitive complexity, cognitive flexibility, emotional intelligence, personality traits and subordinates’ job performance. The subordinates provided data for their sociodemographics, commitment and work engagement, and leaders’ behavioural complexity, overall effectiveness and performance. Results show leaders’ cognitive flexibility, cognitive complexity, extraversion, emotional stability and agreeableness via behavioural complexity positively relate to leader effectiveness and subordinates’ job performance. Except for the competitive mediation of extraversion, all other mediations were indirect. The indirect effects of cognitive flexibility and emotional stability on leader effectiveness and subordinates’ job performance via behavioural complexity were medium. The other effects were low. Thus, this research contributes to the understanding of the association of different cognitive, social and personality attributes with leader effectiveness and subordinates’ job behaviour and the role of behavioural complexity as a mediating mechanism in these relationships.
AbraimisD. J. (1985). Job stressors, strain, job performance, social support and social conflict: Causal relationship in a four-wave longitudinal panel study [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan].
2.
AntonakisJ., BendahanS., JacquartP., & LaliveR. (2010). On making causal claims: A review and recommendations. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(6), 1086–1120.
3.
AveryD. R., TonidandelS., GriffithK. H., & QuinonesM. A. (2003). The impact of multiple measures of leader experience on leader effectiveness: New insights for leader selection. Journal of Business Research, 56(8), 673–679.
4.
Baker-BrownG., BallardE. J., BluckS., de VriesB., SuedfeldP., & TetlockP. E. (1992). The conceptual/integrative complexity scoring manual. In SmithC. P. (Ed.), Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis (pp. 401–418). Cambridge University Press.
5.
BarrickM. R., MountM. K., & JudgeT. A. (2001). Personality and performance at the beginning of the new millennium: What do we know and where do we go next?International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9(1–2), 9–30.
6.
BartoneP. T., SnookS. A., & TrembleT. R.Jr., (2002). Cognitive and personality predictors of leader performance in west point cadets. Military Psychology, 14(4), 321–338.
7.
BartunekJ. M., GordonJ. R., & WeathersbyR. P. (1983). Developing “complicated” understanding in administrators. Academy of Management Review, 8(2), 273–284.
8.
BaumC. F. (2006). An introduction to modern econometrics using Stata. Stata Press.
9.
BeckerJ. M., KleinK., & WetzelsM. (2012). Hierarchical latent variable models in PLS-SEM: Guidelines for using reflective-formative type models. Long Range Planning, 54(5–6), 359–394.
10.
BelasenA., & FrankN. (2008). Competing values leadership: Quadrant roles and personality traits. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 29(2), 127–143.
11.
BhattacharyaP., & MehtaA. (2018). Best workplaces in manufacturing look to attract younger talent. Live Mint. https://www.livemint.com/Industry/cGxG6Y4TGZnsJMyZG9kZSP/Best-workplaces-in-manufacturing-look-to-attract-younger-tal.html
12.
BobkoP., & SchwartzJ. P. (1984). A metric for integrating theoretically related but statistically uncorrelated constructs. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(1), 11–16.
13.
BonoJ. E., & JudgeT. A. (2004). Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 901–910.
14.
BuccholzA. (2016). Cognitive flexibility in leadership can make any NC business as nimble as a small business. Applied Vision Works. http://appliedvisionworks.com/avw-blog/cognitive-flexibility-in-leadership-can-make-any-nc-business-as-nimble-as-a-small-business/
15.
CableD. M., & JudgeT. A. (2003). Managers’ upward influence tactic strategies: The role of manager personality and supervisor leadership style. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(2), 197–214.
16.
CavazotteF., MorenoV., & HickmannM. (2012). Effects of leader intelligence, personality and emotional intelligence on transformational leadership and managerial performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 443–455.
17.
DenisonD. R., HooijbergR., & QuinnR. E. (1995). Paradox and performance: Toward a theory of behavioral complexity in managerial leadership. Organization Science, 6(5), 524–540.
18.
DeRueD. S., NahrgangJ. D., WellmanN. E. D., & HumphreyS. E. (2011). Trait and behavioral theories of leadership: An integration and meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Personnel Psychology, 64(1), 7–52.
19.
De VriesR. E. (2018). Three nightmare traits in leaders. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 871. https://doi.10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00871
20.
DoM. H., & MinbashianA. (2014). A meta-analytic examination of the effects of the agentic and affiliative aspects of extraversion on leadership outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(5), 1040–1053.
21.
EdelmanP., & van KnippenbergD. (2018). Emotional intelligence, management of subordinate’s emotions, and leadership effectiveness. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 39(5), 592–607.
22.
FiedlerF. E. (1964). A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1(1), 149–190.
23.
GeisserS. (1974). A predictive approach to the random effect model. Biometrika, 61(1), 101–107.
24.
GeorgeJ. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human Relations, 53(8), 1027–1055.
25.
GoodD. J. & SharmaG. (2010). A little more rigidity: Firming the construct of leader flexibility. Journal of Change Management, 10(2), 155–174.
26.
GoslingS. D., RentfrowP. J., & SwannW. B.Jr., (2003). A very brief measure of the Big Five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(6), 504–528.
27.
GrantA. M., GinoF., & HofmannD. A. (2011). Reversing the extraverted leadership advantage: The role of employee proactivity. Academy of Management Journal, 54(3), 528–550.
28.
GreenG. C. (2003). The impact of cognitive complexity on project leadership performance. Information and Software Technology, 46(3), 165–172.
29.
GunasekaranA. (1999). Agile manufacturing: A framework for research and development. International Journal of Production Economics, 62(1), 87–105.
30.
HairJ. F.Jr.HultG. T. M., RingleC. M., & SarstedtM. (2014). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications.
31.
HerseyP., BlanchardK. H., & NatemeyerW. E. (1979). Situational leadership, perception, and the impact of power. Group & Organization Studies, 4(4), 418–428.
32.
HoganR., CurphyG. J., & HoganJ. (1994). What we know about leadership: Effectiveness and personality. American Psychologist, 49(6), 493–504.
33.
HooijbergR. (1996). A multidirectional approach toward leadership: An extension of the concept of behavioral complexity. Human Relations, 49(7), 917–946.
34.
HooijbergR., HuntJ. G. J., & DodgeG. E. (1997). Leadership complexity and development of the leaderplex model. Journal of Management, 23(3), 375–408.
35.
HooijbergR., & QuinnR. E. (1992). Behavioral complexity and the development of effective managers. In PhillipsR. L. & HuntJ. G. (Eds.), Strategic leadership: A multiorganizational-level perspective (pp. 161–175). Quorum Books/Greenwood Publishing Group.
36.
HouseR. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 323–352.
37.
HouseR. J., & MitchellT. R. (1975). Path goal theory of leadership (Technical Report No. 75–67). University of Washington; Organizational Effectiveness Research Programs Office of Naval Research, United States Government.
38.
HuL. T., & BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.
39.
IonescuT. (2012). Exploring the nature of cognitive flexibility. New Ideas in Psychology, 30(2), 190–200.
40.
JacksonD. L. (2003). Revisiting sample size and number of parameter estimates: Some support for the N: q hypothesis. Structural Equation Modeling, 10(1), 128–141.
41.
JarvisD., MacKenzieS., & PodsakoffP. (2003). A critical review of construct indicators and measurement model misspecification in marketing and consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(3), 199–218.
42.
JohnO. P., & SrivastavaS. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, 2(1), 102–138.
43.
JudgeT. A., BonoJ. E., IliesR., & GerhardtM. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765–780.
44.
JudgeT. A., HigginsC. A., ThoresenC. J., & BarrickM. R. (1999). The big five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52(3), 621–652.
45.
KaiserR. B., & HoganJ. (2011). Personality, leader behavior, and overdoing it. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 63(4), 219.
46.
KaiserR. B., LindbergJ. T., & CraigS. B. (2007). Assessing the flexibility of managers: A comparison of methods. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15, 40–55. 10.1111/j.1468-2389.2007.00366.x
47.
KaiserR. B., & OverfieldD.V. (2010). Assessing flexible leadership as a mastery of opposites. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62(2), 105–118.
48.
KathuriaR., PartoviF. Y., & GreenhausJ. H. (2010). Leadership practices, competitive priorities, and manufacturing group performance. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 30(10), 1080–1105.
49.
KennyD. A. (2018). Mediation. http://www.davidakenny.net/cm/mediate.html
50.
KlineR. B. (1998). Principals and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford.
51.
KirkpatrickS. A., & LockeE. A. (1991). Leadership: Do traits matter?The Executive, 5(2), 48–60.
52.
KotakY. (2018). Only 3% to 12% women work in India’s manufacturing sector, says survey. Hindustan Times. https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/only-3-to-12-women-work-in-india-s-manufacturing-sector-says-survey/story-6i3otX2XyWLDdrWPLwtAfI.html
53.
LarckerD. F., & RusticusT. O. (2010). On the use of instrumental variables in accounting research. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 43(3), 186–205.
54.
LavineM. (2014). Paradoxical leadership and the competing values framework. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 50(2), 189–205.
55.
LawrenceK. A., LenkP., & QuinnR. E. (2009). Behavioral complexity in leadership: The psychometric properties of a new instrument to measure behavioral repertoire. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(2), 87–102.
56.
LuthansF., BaackD., & TaylorL. (1987). Organizational commitment: Analysis of antecedents. Human Relations, 40(4), 219–236.
57.
MacKinnonD. P., KrullJ. L., & LockwoodC. M. (2000). Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prevention Science, 1(4), 173–181.
58.
MartinM. M., & AndersonC. M. (1998). The cognitive flexibility scale: Three validity studies. Communication Reports, 11(1), 1–9.
59.
MartinM. M., AndersonC. M., & ThweattK. S. (1998). Aggressive communication traits and their relationships with the cognitive flexibility scale and the communication flexibility scale. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 13(3), 531–540.
60.
MartinM. M., & RubinR. B. (1995). A new measure of cognitive flexibility. Psychological Reports, 76(2), 623–626.
61.
MayerJ. D., & SaloveyP. (1995). Emotional intelligence and the construction and regulation of feelings. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 4(3), 197–208.
62.
MazurA., PisarskiA., ChangA., & AshkanasyN. M. (2014). Rating defence major project success: The role of personal attributes and stakeholder relationships. International Journal of Project Management, 32(6), 944–957.
63.
McCraeR. R., & CostaP. T.Jr., (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52(5), 509–516.
64.
MorrisJ. H., & ShermanD. J. (1981). Generalizability of an organizational commitment model. Academy of Management Journal, 24(3), 512–526.
65.
MowdayR. T., SteersR. M., & PorterL.W. (1979). The measure of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14(2), 224–247.
66.
NadkarniS., & HerrmannP. O. L. (2010). CEO personality, strategic flexibility, and firm performance: The case of the Indian business process outsourcing industry. Academy of Management Journal, 53(5), 1050–1073.
67.
NgK. Y., AngS., & ChanK. Y. (2008). Personality and leader effectiveness: A moderated mediation model of leadership self-efficacy, job demands, and job autonomy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(4), 733–743.
68.
NitzlC., RoldanJ. L., & CepedaG. (2016). Mediation analysis in partial least squares path modeling: Helping researchers discuss more sophisticated models. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 116(9), 1849–1864.
69.
PetersonR. S., SmithD. B., MartoranaP. V., & OwensP. D. (2003). The impact of chief executive officer personality on top management team dynamics: One mechanism by which leadership affects organizational performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 795–808.
70.
QuinnR. E., & RohrbaughJ. (1983). A spatial model of effectiveness criteria: Towards a competing values approach to organizational analysis. Management Science, 29(3), 363–377.
71.
QuinnR. E., SpreitzerG. M., & HartS. (1991). Challenging the assumptions of bipolarity: Interpenetration and managerial effectiveness. In SrivastvaS. & FryR. (Eds.), Executive and organization continuity (pp. 222−252). Jossey-Bass.
72.
Reiter-PalmonR. (2003). Predicting leadership activities: The role of flexibility. Individual Differences Research, 1(2), 124–136.
73.
RiggioR. E., & ReichardR. J. (2008). The emotional and social intelligences of effective leadership: An emotional and social skill approach. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(2), 169–185.
74.
RingleC. M., WendeS., & BeckerJ.-M. (2015). SmartPLS 3. Bönningstedt. http://www.smartpls.com
75.
RoseteD., & CiarrochiJ. (2005). Emotional intelligence and its relationship to workplace performance outcomes of leadership effectiveness. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26(5), 388–399.
76.
RubinR. S., MunzD. C., & BommerW. H. (2005). Leading from within: The effects of emotion recognition and personality on transformational leadership behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 48(5), 845–858.
77.
SaloveyP., BedellB. T., DetweilerJ. B., & MayerJ. D. (1999). Coping intelligently: Emotional intelligence and the coping process. In SnyderC. R. (Ed.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 141–164). Oxford University Press.
78.
SaloveyP., & MayerJ. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9(3), 185–211.
79.
SchaufeliW. B., BakkerA. B., & SalanovaM. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire a cross-national study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716.
80.
SchroderH. M., DriverM. J., & StreufertS. (1967). Human information processing. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
81.
SharmaD., SharmaD., & SharmaJ.P. (2014). Production planning and control. International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering and Technology, 3(3), 319–321.
82.
ShuckB., & HerdA. M. (2012). Employee engagement and leadership: Exploring the convergence of two frameworks and implications for leadership development in HRD. Human Resource Development Review, 11(2), 156–181.
83.
SilverthorneC. (2001). Leadership effectiveness and personality: A cross cultural evaluation. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(2), 303–309.
84.
SmithM. A., & CangerJ. M. (2004). Effects of supervisor “big five” personality on subordinate attitudes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18(4), 465–481.
85.
StreufertS., & SwezeyR. W. (1986). Complexity, managers, and organizations. Academic Press.
86.
SuarD., & KhuntiaR. (2010). Influence of personal values and value congruence on unethical practices and work behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 97, 443–460. 10.1007/s10551-010-0517-y
87.
TongY. K., & ArveyR. D.2015, Managing complexity via the competing values framework. Journal of Management Development, 34(6), 653–673. 10.1108/JMD-04-2014-0029
88.
UsalcasJ. (2008). Hours polarization revisited. Perspectives on Labour and Income, 9(3) 5–15.
89.
WillabyH. W., CostaD. S., BurnsB. D., MacCannC., & RobertsR. D. (2015). Testing complex models with small sample sizes: A historical overview and empirical demonstration of what partial least squares (PLS) can offer differential psychology. Personality and Individual Differences, 84, 73–78. 10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.008.
90.
WongC. S., & LawK. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude: An exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274.
91.
YoundtM. A., SnellS. A., DeanJ. W.Jr., & LepakD. P. (1996). Human resource management, manufacturing strategy, and firm performance. Academy of Management Journal, 39(4), 836–866.
92.
YuklG. (2013). Leadership in organizations. Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd.
93.
YuklG., & FalbeC. M. (1991). Importance of different power sources in downward and lateral relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(3), 416.
94.
YuklG., & MahsudR. (2010). Why flexible and adaptive leadership is essential. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62(2), 81–93.
95.
ZaccaroS. J. (1996). Models and theories of executive leadership: A conceptual/empirical review and integration. U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a320259.pdf
96.
ZaccaroS. J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist, 62(1), 1–6.
97.
ZaccaroS. J., GreenJ. P., DubrowS., & KolzeM. (2018). Leader individual differences, situational parameters, and leadership outcomes: A comprehensive review and integration. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(1), 2–43.
98.
ZaccaroS. J., GilbertJ. A., ThorK. K. & MumfordM. D. (1991). Leadership and social intelligence: Linking social perceptiveness and behavioral flexibility to leader effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 2(4), 317–342.
99.
ZaccaroS., LaPortK., & JoséI. (2013). The attributes of successful leaders: A performance requirements approach. In RumseyM. G. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of leadership (pp.11–36). Oxford University Press.
100.
ZeytinogluI. U., CookeG. B., & MannS. L. (2009). Flexibility: Whose choice is it anyway?Relations Industrielles, 64(4), 555–574.
101.
ZhangY., WaldmanD. A., HanY. L., & LiX. B. (2015). Paradoxical leader behaviors in people management: Antecedents and consequences. Academy of Management Journal, 58(2), 538–566.
102.
ZhaoX., LynchJ. G.Jr., & ChenQ. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2),197–206.
