The recent professional literature has been replete with articles focusing on the school reform movement labeled full inclusion whereby advocates are pushing for the placement of all students with disabilities in general education settings. While the movement's roots can be traced to advocates of persons with severe handicaps, educators, administrators, and parents are generalizing the movement's goals to students with other disabilities including emotional and behavioral disorders. Related issues surrounding the full inclusion movement must be examined prior to wide adaptation for all students with disabilities. The purpose of this article is to explore three relevant issues in determining appropriate placements for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. First, this article examines some of the current objectives of the full inclusion movement in relation to the education of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Second, issues surrounding the placement of students with disabilities are often resolved not in professional literature but in courtrooms; therefore, current court cases focusing on inclusion that impact how special education services are delivered are also summarized. Finally, provided a general education setting is the most appropriate placement, promising practices for educating students with emotional and behavioral disorders to maximize their success are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbramsonM., WilsonV., YoshidaR. K., & HagertyG. (1983). Parents’ perceptions of their learning disabled child's educational performance.Learning Disability Quarterly, 6(2), 184–194.
2.
AchenbachT., & EdelbrockC. S. (1981). Behavior problems and competencies reported by parents of normal and disturbed children aged four through sixteen.Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46(1, Serial No. 188).
3.
Anderson-InmanL. (1981). Transenvironmental programming: Promoting success in the regular class by maximizing the effect of resource room instruction.Journal of Special Education Technology, 4, 3–12.
4.
AsherS. R., & HymelS. (1981). Children's social competence in peer relations: Sociometric and behavioral assessment. In WineJ. D., & SymeM. D. (Eds.), Social competence (pp. 125–157). New York: Guilford.
5.
AsherS. R., & TaylorA. R. (1981). Social outcomes of mainstreaming: Sociometric assessment and beyond.Exceptional Education Quarterly, 1(4), 13–30.
6.
BainA., & FarrisH. (1991). Teacher attitudes toward social skills training.Teacher Education and Special Education, 14, 49–56.
7.
BatemanB. D. (1992). Better IEPs.Creswell, OR: Otter Ink.
8.
BatemanB. D., & ChardD. J. (in press). Legal demands and constraints on placement decisions. In LloydJ. W., & KauffmanJ. M. (Eds.), Issues in the educational placement of pupils with emotional or behavioral disorders.
9.
BiermanK. L., & FurmanW. (1984). The effects of social skills training and peer involvement on the social adjustment of preadolescents.Child Development, 55, 151–162.
10.
BraatenS., KauffmanJ. M., BraatenB., PolsgroveL., NelsonC. M. (1988). The regular education initiative: Patent medicine for behavioral disorders.Exceptional Children, 54, 21–27.
11.
BullardM., CormanL., GottliebJ., & KaufmanM. (1977). Improving the social status of mainstreamed retarded children.Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 605–611.
12.
ChandlerL. K., LubeckR. C., & FowlerS. A. (1992). Generalization and maintenance of preschool children's social skills: A critical review and analysis.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 415–428.
13.
Chris D. v. Montgomery Co. Bd. of Ed., 753 F. Supp. 922 (M.C. Ala. 1990).
14.
ColemanJ., PullisM., & MinnettA. (1987). Studying mildly handicapped children's adjustment to mainstreaming: A systemic approach.Remedial and Special Education, 8, 19–31.
15.
ColvinG., KameenuiE. J., & SugaiG. (1994). Reconceptualizing behavior management and school-wide discipline in general education.Education and Treatment of Children, 16, 361–381.
16.
CosdenM. A., IannacconeC. J., & WienkeW. D. (1990). Social skill instruction in secondary education.Teacher Education and Special Education, 13(3–4), 154–159.
17.
Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (1989). Position paper on the regular education initiative.Behavioral Disorders, 14, 201–207.
18.
Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders (1993, August). Position statement on full inclusion.CCBD Newsletter, p. 1.
19.
Council of Chief State School Officers. (1992, March). Special education and school restructuring.Concerns, 35, 1–7.
20.
CullinanD., EpsteinM. H., & LloydJ. W. (1983). Behavior disorders of children and adolescents.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
21.
Daniel R. R. v. St. Bd. of Ed., El Paso, 874 F.2d 1036 (5th Cir. 1989).
22.
Davila, R., 18 IDELR 594 (OSERS, 1991).
23.
DavisW. E. (1989). The regular education initiative debate: Its promises and problems.Exceptional Children, 55, 440–447.
24.
DevlinS. D., & ElliottR. N.Jr. (1992). Drug use patterns of adolescents with behavioral disorders.Behavioral Disorders, 17, 264–272.
25.
DickeyL., JacoL., WilliamsM., SagerN., & SlayT. (1983). A systematic follow-up approach for mainstreaming students with behavior and emotional disorders.The Exceptional Child, 30, 185–189.
26.
DonaldsonJ. (1980). Changing attitudes toward handicapped persons: A review and analysis of research.Exceptional Children, 46, 504–514.
27.
DowningJ. A., SimpsonR. L., & MylesB. S. (1990). Regular and special educator perceptions of nonacademic skills needed by mainstreamed students with behavioral disorders and learning disabilities.Behavioral Disorders, 15, 217–226.
28.
DunlapG., KernL., dePerczelM., ClarkeS., WilsonD., ChildsK. E., WhiteR., & FalkG. D. (1993). Functional analysis of classroom variables for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.Behavioral Disorders, 18, 275–291.
29.
FuchsD., & FuchsL. S. (1990). Framing the REI debate: Abolitionists versus conservationists. In LloydJ. W., ReppA. C., & SinghN. N. (Eds.), The regular education initiative: Alternative perspectives on concepts, issues, and models (pp. 241–255). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Press.
30.
FuchsD., & FuchsL. S. (1994). Inclusive schools movement and the radicalization of special education reform.Exceptional Children, 60, 294–309.
31.
FuchsD., FuchsL. S., FernstromP., & HohnM. (1991). Toward a responsible reintegration of behaviorally disordered students.Behavioral Disorders, 16, 133–147.
32.
GableR. A., McLaughlinV. L., SindelarP., & KilgoreK. (1993). Unifying general and special education teacher preparation: Some cautions along the road to educational reform.Preventing School Failure, 37(2), 5–10.
33.
GartnerA., & LipskeyD. K. (1987). Beyond special education: Toward a quality system for all students.Harvard Educational Review, 57, 367–395.
34.
Geiss v. Parsippany-Troy Hills Bd. of Educ., 774 F.2d 575 (3rd Cir. 1985).
35.
GeorgeN. L., & LewisT. J. (1990). Exit assistance for special educators: Helping students make the transition.Teaching Exceptional Children, 23(2), 34–39.
36.
GerberM. M., & SemmelM. I. (1984). Teacher as imperfect test: Reconceptualizing the referral process.Educational Psychologist, 19(3), 137–148.
37.
GerstenR., WalkerH. M., & DarchC. (1988). The relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and their tolerance for handicapped students.Exceptional Children, 54, 433–438.
38.
GottliebJ. (1980). Improving attitudes toward retarded children by using group discussion.Exceptional Children, 47, 106–111.
39.
GottliebJ. (1981). Mainstreaming: Fulfilling the promise?American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 86, 115–126.
40.
GottliebJ., & LeyserY. (1981). Facilitating the social mainstreaming of retarded children.Exceptional Education Quarterly, 1, 57–69.
41.
GreenwoodC. R. (1991). Longitudinal analysis of time, engagement, and achievement of at-risk versus non-risk students.Exceptional Children, 57, 521–534.
42.
Greer v. Rome City School District, 950 F.2d 695 (11th Cir. 1991).
43.
GreshamF. M. (1981). Social skills training with handicapped children: A review.Review of Educational Research, 51, 139–176.
44.
GreshamF. M. (1982). Misguided mainstreaming: The case for social skills training with handicapped children.Exceptional Children, 48, 422–433.
45.
GreshamF. M. (1983). Social skills assessment as a component of mainstreaming placement decisions.Exceptional Children, 49, 331–336.
46.
GreshamF. M. (1986). Conceptual and definitional issues in the assessment of children's social skills: Implications for classification and training.Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 15(1), 3–15.
47.
GrosenickJ. K., GeorgeN. L., GeorgeM. P., & LewisT. J. (1991). Public school services for behaviorally disordered students: Program practices in the 1980s.Behavioral Disorders, 16, 87–96.
48.
GrosenickJ., & HuntzeS. (1980). National needs analysis in behavior disorders: Adolescent behavior disorders.Columbia: University of Missouri, Department of Special Education.
49.
GuralnickM. J. (1990). Social competence and early intervention.Journal of Early Intervention, 14, 3–14.
50.
HartupW. W. (1979). Peer relationships and the growth of social competence. In KentM. W., & RolfJ. E. (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology: Social competence in children (Vol. 1; pp. 150–170). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
51.
HershR. H., & WalkerH. M. (1983). Great expectations: Making schools effective for all students.Policy Studies Review, 2(Special #1), 147–188.
52.
HopsH. (1982). Social-skills training for socially withdrawn/isolate children. In KarolyP., & SteffenJ. J. (Eds.), Improving children's competence: Advances in child behavioral analysis and therapy (Vol. 1, pp. 39–97). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
53.
HopsH. (1983). Children's social competence and skill: Current research practices and future directions.Behavior Therapy, 14, 3–18.
54.
HopsH., FinchM., & McConnellS. (1985). Social skill deficits. In BornsteinP. H., & KazdinA. E. (Eds.), Handbook of clinical behavior therapy with children (pp. 543–598). Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
55.
HornerR. H., DiemerS. M., & BrazeauK. C. (1992). Educational support for students with severe problem behaviors in Oregon: A descriptive analysis from the 1987–1988 school year.Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 17, 154–169.
56.
IdsteinP. (1993, December). Swimming against the mainstream.Phi Delta Kappan, pp. 336–340.
57.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, 20 U.S.C. s1401 et seq.
58.
JonesR. L. (1974). The hierarchical structure of attitudes toward the exceptional.Exceptional Children, 40, 430–435.
59.
KauffmanJ. M. (1993a). Characteristics of children's behavior disorders (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
60.
KauffmanJ. M. (1993b). How we might achieve the radical reform of special education.Exceptional Children, 60, 6–16.
61.
KauffmanJ. M., & HallahanD. P. (1993). Toward a comprehensive delivery system for special education. In GoodlandJ. I., & LovittT. C. (Eds.), Integrating general and special education (pp. 73–102). New York: Merrill.
62.
KauffmanJ. M., & WongK. L. H. (1991). Effective teachers of students with behavioral disorders: Are generic teaching skills enough?Behavioral Disorders, 16, 225–237.
63.
KearneyC. A., & DurandV. M. (1992). How prepared are our teachers for mainstreamed classroom settings? A survey of postsecondary schools of education in New York state.Exceptional Children, 59, 6–11.
64.
KeenanS. (1993, October). Planning for inclusion: Program elements that support teachers and students with E/BD. Keynote Address at the Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders Working Forum, Inclusion: Ensuring Appropriate Services to Children/Youth with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, Saint Louis, MO.
65.
KerrM., & ZigmondN. (1986). What do high school teachers want? A study of expectations and standards.Education and Treatment of Children, 9, 239–249.
66.
KnitzerJ., SteinbergZ., & FleischB. (1990). At the schoolhouse door: An examination of programs and policies for children with behavioral and emotional problems.New York: Bank Street College of Education.
67.
KornblauB., & KeoghB. (1980). Teachers’ perceptions and educational decisions.Journal for Teaching and Learning, 1, 87–101.
68.
LewinsohnP. M. (1974). Clinical and theoretical aspects of depression. In CalhounK. S., AdamsH. E., & MitchellK. M. (Eds.), Innovative treatment methods in psychopathology (pp. 63–120). New York: Wiley.
69.
Lewis.T. J. (1992). Essential features of a social skills instructional program. In MarrJ., & TindalG. (Eds.), The Oregon Conference ‘92 Monograph (pp. 32–40). Eugene: University of Oregon, College of Education.
70.
LewisT. J. (in press). A comparative analysis of the effects of social skills training and teacher directed contingencies on the generalized social behavior of preschool children with disabilities.Journal of Behavioral Education.
71.
LewisT. J., & BelloK. (1994). Including children with E/BD in general education settings: Issues and practical strategies. In BullockL. M., & GableR. A. (Eds.), Monograph on inclusion: Ensuring appropriate services to children and youth with emotional/behavioral disorders (Vol. 1; pp. 11–16). Reston, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children.
72.
LewisT. J., & GeorgeN. L. (1989). Strategies for successful reintegration. In TindalG. (Ed.), The Oregon Conference ‘89 Monograph (pp. 18–23). Eugene: University of Oregon, College of Education.
73.
LewisT. J., & SugaiG. (1993). Teaching communicative alternatives to socially withdrawn behavior: An investigation in maintaining treatment effects.Journal of Behavioral Education, 3, 61–75.
74.
LewisT. J., & SugaiG. (1994). The functional analysis of on- and off-task behavior of a general education student: A pilot investigation of the effects of teacher and peer attention. Manuscript submitted for publication.
75.
LipskeyD. K., & GartnerA. (1989). Beyond separate education: Quality education for all.Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
76.
LipskeyD. K., & GartnerA. (1991). Restructuring for quality. In LloydJ. W., ReppA. C., & SinghN. N. (Eds.), The regular education initiative: Alternative perspectives on concepts, issues, and models (pp. 43–56). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Press.
77.
McConnellS. R. (1987). Entrapment effects and the generalization and maintenance of social skills training for elementary school students with behavioral disorders.Behavioral Disorders, 12, 252–263.
78.
McDonnellA. P., & HardmanM. L. (1989). The desegregation of America's special schools: Strategies for change.Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 14, 68–74.
79.
McEvoyM. A., DavisC. A., & ReichleJ. (1993). Districtwide technical assistance teams: Designing interventions strategies for young children with challenging behaviors.Behavioral Disorders, 19, 27–33.
80.
McIntyreT. (1993). Behaviorally disordered youth in correctional settings: Prevalence, programming, and teacher training.Behavioral Disorders, 18, 167–176.
81.
MeadowsN., NeelR. S., ParkerG., & TimoK. (1991). A validation of social skills for students with behavioral disorders.Behavioral Disorders, 16, 200–210.
82.
MichelsonL., & WoodR. (1980). Behavioral assessment and training of children's social skills.Progress in Behavior Modification, 9, 241–291.
83.
Michigan State Department of Education and State Board of Education. (1992, February). Inclusive education: Position statement.Lansing, MI: Author.
84.
MillerD. (1993). Sexual and physical abuse among adolescents with behavioral disorders: Profiles and implications.Behavioral Disorders, 18, 129–138.
85.
National Association of State Boards of Education. (1992, October). Winners all: A call for inclusive schools.Washington, DC: Author.
86.
National Education Association. (1992). Integrating students with special needs: Policies and practices that work.Washington, DC: Author. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 301 739)
OdomS. L., McConnellS. R., & ChandlerL. K. (1993). Acceptability and feasibility of classroom-based social interaction interventions for young children with disabilities.Exceptional Children, 60, 226–236.
89.
ParkerJ. G., & AsherS. R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low accepted children at risk?Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357–389.
90.
PaulJ. L., TurnbullA. P., & CruickshankW. M. (1977). Mainstreaming: A practical guide.Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
91.
The Peacock Hill Working Group. (1991). Problems and promises in special education and related services for children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders.Behavioral Disorders, 16, 299–313.
92.
PearpointJ., & ForestM. (1992). Foreword. In StainbackS., & StainbackW. (Eds.), Curriculum considerations in inclusive classrooms: Facilitating learning for all students (pp. xv–xviii). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
93.
Richards, EHLR 211:433, (OSEP, 1987).
94.
RoachV. (1993, October). Winners all: A call for inclusive schools.Colloquium, University of Oregon, Eugene.
95.
SabornieE. J. (1985). Social mainstreaming of handicapped students: Facing an unpleasant reality.Remedial and Special Education, 6(2), 12–16.
96.
SabornieE. J. (1991). Measuring and teaching social skills in the mainstream. In StonerG., ShinnM. R., & WalkerH. M. (Eds.), Interventions for achievement and behavior problems (pp. 161–177). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
97.
Sacramento City Unified Sch. Dist., Bd. of Educ. v. Rachel H. by Holland, 20 IDELR 812 (9th Cir. 1994).
98.
SafranS. P., & SafranJ. S. (1988). Perceptions of problem behaviors: A review and analysis of research. In RutherfordR. B., NelsonC. M., & FornessS. R. (Eds.), Bases of severe behavioral disorders in children and youth (pp. 39–50). Boston: College-Hill.
99.
SafranS. P., SafranJ. S., & BarcikowskiR. S. (1988). Assessing teacher manageability: A factor analytic approach.Behavioral Disorders, 13, 245–252.
100.
SailorW., AndersonJ. L., HalvorsenA. T., DoeringK., FillerJ., & GoetzL. (1989). The comprehensive local school: Regular education for all students with disabilities.Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
101.
SassoG. M., SimpsonR. L., & NovakC. G. (1985). Procedures for facilitating integration of autistic children in public school settings.Analysis and Intervention of Developmental Disabilities, 5, 233–246.
102.
SchragJ. A. (1993). Restructuring schools for better alignment of general and special education. In GoodlandJ. I., & LovittT. C. (Eds.), Integrating general and special education (pp. 203–227). New York: Merrill.
103.
ShankerA. (1994, January 23). Where we stand: A “typical” story.New York Times, p. E-7.
104.
ShavelsonR. J., & SternP. (1981). Research on teachers’ pedagogical thoughts, judgments, decisions, and behavior.Review of Educational Research, 51, 455–498.
105.
ShoresR. E. (1987). Overview of research on social interaction: A historical and personal perspective.Behavioral Disorders, 12, 233–241.
106.
SimpsonR. L. (1988). Needs of parents and families whose children have learning and behavior problems.Behavioral Disorders, 14, 40–47.
107.
SimpsonR. L., & MylesB. S. (1989). Parents’ mainstreaming modification preferences for children with educable mental handicaps, behavior disorders, and learning disabilities.Psychology in the Schools, 26, 292–301.
108.
SnellM. E. (1990). Schools are for all kids: The importance of integration for students with severe disabilities and their peers. In LloydJ. W., ReppA. C., & SinghN. N. (Eds.), The regular education initiative: Alternative perspectives on concepts, issues, and models (pp. 133–148). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Press.
109.
StainbackS., & StainbackW. (1992). Curriculum considerations in inclusive classrooms: Facilitating learning for all students.Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
110.
StainbackW., & StainbackS. (1984). A rationale for the merger of special and regular education.Exceptional Children, 51, 102–111.
111.
StainbackW., & StainbackS. (1990). A rationale for integration and restructuring: A synopsis. In LloydJ. W., ReppA. C., & SinghN. N. (Eds.), The regular education initiative: Alternative perspectives on concepts, issues, and models (pp. 225–239). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Press.
112.
StrainP. S. (Ed.). (1981). The utilization of classroom peers as behavior change agents.New York: Plenum.
113.
SugaiG., & ChardD. (1994). School discipline practices in Oregon: Teacher and principal reports. Manuscript submitted for publication.
114.
SugaiG., & HornerR. (1994). Including students with severe behavior problems in general education settings: Assumptions, challenges, and solutions. In MarrJ., SugaiG., & TindalG. (Eds.), The Oregon conference monograph 1994 (pp. 109–120). Eugene: University of Oregon.
115.
SugaiG. M., & TindalG. A. (1993). Effective school consultation: An interactive approach.Pacific Grove, CA: Brookes/Cole.
116.
U.S. Department of Education. (1993). Fifteenth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.Washington, DC: Author.
117.
Vergason, 19 EHLR 471 (OSERS, 1991).
118.
WalkerH. M. (1986). The assessments for integration into mainstream settings (AIMS) assessment system: Rationale, instruments, procedures, and outcomes.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 15(1), 55–63.
119.
WalkerH. M., & BullisM. (1990). Behavior disorders and the social context of regular class integration: A conceptual dilemma? In LloydJ. W., ReppA. C., & SinghN. N. (Eds.), The regular education initiative: Alternative perspectives on concepts, issues, and models (pp. 75–93). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore Press.
120.
WalkerH. M., & RankinR. (1983). Assessing the behavioral expectations and demands of less restrictive settings.School Psychology Review, 12, 274–284.
121.
WalkerH. M., & SeversonH. (1992). Standardized screening and identification of behavior disordered pupils in the elementary age range: Rationale, procedures, and guidelines.Longwood, CO: Sopris West.
122.
WangM. C., & BirchJ. W. (1984). Comparison of a full-time mainstreaming program and a resource room approach.Exceptional Children, 51, 33–40.
123.
WebberJ. (1993, October). Mainstreaming, integration, and inclusion: What it all means for the full continuum of services for students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Keynote Address at the Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders Working Forum, Inclusion: Ensuring Appropriate Services to Children/Youth with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders. Saint Louis, MO.
124.
WillM., EHLR 211:442 (OSERS, 1987).
125.
WilliamsS. L., WalkerH. M., HolmesD., TodisB., & FabreT. (1989). Social validation of adolescents social skills by teachers and students.Remedial and Special Education, 10(4), 18–28.
126.
WongK. L. H., KauffmanJ. M., & LloydJ. W. (1991). Choices for integration: Selecting teachers for mainstreamed students with emotional or behavioral disorders.Intervention in School and Clinic, 27, 108–115.
127.
ZaragozaN., VaughnS., & McIntoshR. (1991). Social skills interventions and children with behavior problems: A review.Behavioral Disorders, 16, 260–275.
