An Initial Study of the Emotional and Behavioral Characteristics of Black Students School Identified as Emotionally Disturbed

Abstract

For years, the research and policy focus on Black students with emotional disturbance (ED) has been on racial disproportionality. The disproportionality issue has sparked professional debate and raised major questions about racial bias, cultural fairness, appropriateness of assessment instruments, the adequacy of special education programs, poverty, exposure to risk factors, and research approaches. Unfortunately, minimal progress has been made on understanding the overrepresentation of Black students in ED programs. The purpose of the present study was to initiate research on the emotional and behavioral functioning of Black students with ED, by comparing the teacher-completed ratings from the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance for Black students with ED (n = 139), Black students without ED (n = 421), White students with ED (n = 271), and White students without ED (n = 1,218). The results demonstrated that (a) Black students with ED were judged to demonstrate significantly higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems than their Black and White peers without ED, and (b) Black students with ED differed minimally from White students with ED. Research limitations, directions for future research, and implications for assessment and service delivery are discussed.

Keywords

emotional disturbance disorders/disabilities behavioral assessment psychometrics disproportionate representation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Algozzine

(2017). Toward an acceptable definition of emotional disturbance: Waiting for change. Behavioral Disorders, 42, 136–144.

Bal

(2015). Culturally responsive positive behavioral interventions and supports (WCER Working Paper No. 2015-9). Wisconsin Center for Education Research, University of Wisconsin–Madison. http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/publications/workingPapers/papers.php

Bradley

Doolittle

Bartolotta

(2008). Building on the data and adding to the discussion: The experiences and outcomes of students with emotional disturbance. Journal of Behavioral Education, 17, 4–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-007-9058-6

Chafouleas

S. M.

Volpe

R. J.

Gresham

F. M.

Cook

C. R.

(2010). School-based behavioral assessment within problem-solving models: Current status and future directions. School Psychology Review, 39, 343–349.

Chang

L. Y.

Wang

M. Y.

Tsai

P. S.

(2016). Diagnostic accuracy of rating scales for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 137(3), 2015–2749.

Cholewa

Hull

M. F.

Babcock

C. R.

Smith

A. D.

(2018). Predictors and academic outcomes associated with in-school suspension. School Psychology Quarterly, 33, 191–199.

Cohen

(1988). Statistical power analysis for behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Curran

F. C.

(2016). Estimating the effect of state zero tolerance laws on exclusionary discipline, racial discipline gaps, and student behavior. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38, 647–668.

Devine

P. G.

Forscher

P. S.

Austin

A. J.

Cox

W. T. L.

(2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1267–1278.

10.

DuPaul

Reid

Anastopoulos

Lambert

M. C.

Watkins

Power

(2016). Parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Factor structure and normative data. Psychological Assessment, 28, 214–225.

11.

Epstein

M. H.

Cullinan

Pierce

Huscroft-D’Angelo

Wery

(2020). Scales for assessing emotional disturbance (3rd ed.). PRO-ED.

12.

Erickson

Gresham

(2019). Measuring teachers’ perceptions of student behavior using the systematic screening for behavior disorders in middle school students. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 27(2), 119–128.

13.

Finn

J. D.

Servoss

T. J.

(2014). Misbehavior, suspensions, and security measures in high school: Racial/ethnic and gender differences. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk, 5(2), Article 11. http://digitalcommons.library.tmc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1211&context=childrenatrisk

14.

Florell

(2018). Historical foundations. In Grapin

S. L.

Kranzler

J. H.

(Eds.), School psychology: Professional issues and practices (pp. 21–41). Springer.

15.

Forness

S. R.

Knitzer

(1992). A new proposed and definition and terminology to replace “serious emotional disturbance” in Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. School Psychology Review, 21, 12–20.

16.

Gage

N. A.

Whitford

D. K.

Katsiyannis

Adams

Jasper

(2019). National analysis of the disciplinary exclusion of Black students with and without disabilities. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 1754–1764.

17.

Hanchon

T. A.

Allen

R. A.

(2013). Identifying students with emotional disturbance: School psychologists’ practices and perceptions. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 193–208.

18.

Hanchon

T. A.

Allen

R. A.

(2018). The identification of students with emotional disturbance: Moving the field toward responsible assessment practices. Psychology in the Schools, 55, 176–189.

19.

Hattie

(2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.

20.

Hedges

L. V.

Olkin

(1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.

21.

Hussar

Zhang

Hein

Wang

Roberts

Cui

Smith

Bullock Mann

Barmer

Dilig

(2020). The condition of education 2020 (NCES 2020-144). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2020144

22.

Hussar

W. J.

Bailey

T. M.

(2016). Projections of education statistics to 2024: Forty-third edition (NCES 2016-013). National Center for Educational Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Government Printing Office.

23.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-446, 20 U.S.C. §1400 et seq. (2004).

24.

Jimerson

S. R.

Burns

M. K.

VanDerHeyden

A. M.

(2016). Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of multi-tiered systems of support (2nd ed.). Springer.

25.

Kauffman

J. M.

Anastasiou

Maag

J. W.

(2016). Special education at the crossroad: An identity crisis and the need for a scientific reconstruction. Exceptionality, 25, 139–155.

26.

Kauffman

J. M.

Landrum

T. J.

(2018). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (11th ed.). Pearson.

27.

Lambert

M. C.

Cullinan

Epstein

M. H.

Martin

(2021a). Differences between students with emotional disturbance, learning disabilities, and without disabilities on the five dimensions of emotional disturbance. Journal of Applied School Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2021.1895399

28.

Lambert

M. C.

Cullinan

Epstein

M. H.

Martin

(2021b). Factor structure of the scales for assessing emotional disturbance – 3 rating scale for student identified with emotional disturbance. Behavioral Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1177/01987429211012328

29.

Lambert

M. C.

Martin

Epstein

M. H.

Cullinan

Katsiyannis

(2021). Differential item functioning of the scales for assessing emotional disturbance – 3 rating scale for White and African American students. Psychology in the Schools, 58, 553–568.

30.

Mason

B. A.

Guneersel

A. B.

Ney

E. A.

(2014). Cultural and ethnic bias in teacher ratings of behavior: A criterion-focused review. Psychology in the Schools, 51, 1017–1030.

31.

McElderry

C. G.

Cheng

T. C.

(2014). Understanding the discipline gap from an ecological perspective. Children & Schools, 36, 241–249.

32.

McFarland

Hussar

de Brey

Snyder

Wang

Wilkinson-Flicker

. . . Hinz

(2017). The condition of education 2017 (NCES 2017-144). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education.

33.

Mitchell

B. S.

Kern

Conroy

M. A.

(2019). Supporting students with emotional or behavioral disorders: State of the field. Behavioral Disorders, 44, 70–84.

34.

Morgan

P. L.

Farkas

(2016). Evidence and implications of racial and ethnic disparities in emotional and behavioral disorders identification and treatment. Behavioral Disorders, 41, 122–131.

35.

National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2020a). NAEP report card: Mathematics. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/mathematics/nation/achievement?grade=4

36.

National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2020b). NAEP report card: Reading. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/achievement?grade=4

37.

National Association of School Psychologists. (2013). Racial and ethnic disproportionality in education [Position statement].

38.

National Association of School Psychologists. (2016). Integrated model of academic and behavioral supports [Position statement].

39.

Sanford

Newman

Wagner

Cameto

Knokey

A. M.

Shaver

(2011). The post-high school outcomes of young adults with disabilities up to 6 years after high school: Key findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011-3004). SRI International.

40.

Skiba

R. J.

Horner

R. H.

Chung

C. G.

Rausch

M. K.

May

S. L.

Tobin

(2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40, 85–107.

41.

Skiba

R. J.

Losen

D. J.

(2016). From reaction to prevention: Turning the page on school discipline. American Educator, 39, 4–44.

42.

Skiba

R. J.

Simmons

A. B.

Ritter

Gibb

A. C.

Rausch

M. K.

Cuadrado

Chung

C. G.

(2008). Achieving equity in special education: History, status, and current challenges. Exceptional Children, 74, 264–288.

43.

Stoiber

K. C.

Gettinger

(2016). Multi-tiered systems of support and evidence-based practices. In Jimerson

S. R.

Burns

M. K.

VanDerHeyden

A. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of multi-tiered systems of support (2nd ed., pp. 121–141). Springer.

44.

Südkamp

Kaiser

Möller

(2012). Accuracy of teachers’ judgments of students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 743–762.

45.

Triplett

N. P.

Ayana

Lewis

C. W.

(2014). Examination of how urban minorities are punished for white suburban violence. Journal of Negro Education, 83, 352–370. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.83.3.03

46.

Trout

A. L.

Nordness

P. D.

Pierce

C. D.

Epstein

M. H.

(2003). Research on the academic status of children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders: A review of the literature from 1961-2000. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 198–210.

47.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences. (2014). What works clearinghouse procedures and standards handbook version 3.0. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/referenceresources/wwc_procedures_v3_0_standards_handbook.pdf

48.

U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. (2019). 2015–16 civil rights data collection: School climate and safety.

49.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special Education Programs. (2021). 42nd annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 2020.

50.

Volpe

R. J.

Gadow

K. D.

(2010). Creating abbreviated rating scales to monitor classroom inattention-overactivity, aggression, and peer conflict: Reliability, validity, and treatment sensitivity. School Psychology Review, 39, 350–363.

51.

Wagner

Cameto

Newman

(2003). Youth with disabilities: A changing population. SRI International.

52.

Wagner

Kutash

Duchnowski

A. J.

Epstein

M. H.

Sumi

W. C.

(2005). The Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study (SEELS) and the National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS2): Study designs and implications for children and youth with emotional disturbance. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 13, 25–41.

53.

Wagner

Newman

Cameto

Garza

Levin

(2005). After high school: A first look at the postschool experiences of youth with disabilities. SRI International.

54.

Whitford

D. K.

Katsiyannis

Counts

(2016). Discriminatory discipline: Trends and issues. NASSP Bulletin, 100(2), 117–135.

55.

Wiley

A. L.

Brigham

F. J.

Kauffman

J. M.

Bogan

J. E.

(2013). Disproportionate poverty, conservatism, and the disproportionate identification of minority students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 36, 29–50.

56.

Zaheer

Maggin

McDaniel

McIntosh

Rodriguez

B. J.

Fogt

(2019). Implementation of promising practices that support students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 44(2), 117–128.