Youth who are incarcerated in secure detention and commitment settings display a complex array of educational, behavioral, and mental health issues that affect the services they require, as well as their responsiveness to interventions. Yet, seldom are these needs understood or taken into account when providing services in secure care settings. In this article, research documenting what is known regarding the characteristics of incarcerated youth is summarized. Current research on the use of evidence-based interventions and services for youth in secure settings is reviewed next. Finally, the limitations of existing research and practice and the use of response to intervention (Rtl) for linking youth characteristics to research-based strategies are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbramK. M., TeplinL. A., CharlesD. R., LongworthS. L., McClellandG. M., & DulcanM. K. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder and trauma in youth in juvenile detention.Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 403–410.
2.
AbramK. M., TeplinL. A., McClellandG. M., & DulcanM. K. (2003). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention.Archives in General Psychiatry, 60, 1097–1108.
3.
AlgozzineB., O'SheaD. J., CrewsW. B., & StoddardK. (1987). Analysis of mathematics competence of learning disabled adolescents.Journal of Special Education, 21, 97–107.
4.
Allen-DeBoerR. A., MalmgrenK. W., & GlassM. (2006). Reading instruction for youth with emotional and behavioral disorders: Providing services in a juvenile correctional facility.Behavioral Disorders, 32, 18–28.
5.
AltschulerD. M., ArmstrongT. L., & MackenzieD. L. (1999). Reintegration, supervised release, and intensive aftercare.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
6.
AndrewsD. A., & DowdenC. (2005). Managing correctional treatment for reduced recidivism: A meta-analytic review of programme integrity.The British Psychological Society, 10, 173–87.
7.
ArchwametyT., & KatsiyannisA. (2000). Academic remediation, parole violations, and recidivism rates among delinquent youths.Remedial and Special Education, 21, 161–170.
8.
ArnoldE. M., KirkR. S., RobertsA. C., GriffithD. P., MeadowsK., & JulianJ. (2003). Treatment of incarcerated, sexually-abused adolescent females: An outcome study.Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 12(1), 123–39.
9.
AtkinsD., PumariegaA., RogersK., MontgomeryL., NybroC., JeffersC., & SeaseF. (1999). Mental health and incarcerated youth: Prevalence and nature of psychopathology.Journal of Child and Family Studies, 8, 193–204.
10.
BaltodanoH. M., HarrisP. J., & RutherfordR. B. (2005). Academic achievement in juvenile corrections: Examining the impact of age, ethnicity, and disability.Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 361–379.
11.
BartonW. H., & ButtsJ. A. (2008). Building on strength: Positive youth development in juvenile justice programs.Chicago: Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago.
12.
BeebeM. C., & MuellerF. (1993). Categorical offenses of juvenile delinquents and the relationship to achievement.Journal of Correctional Education, 44, 193–198.
13.
BrooksT. R., & PetitM. (1997). Early Intervention: Crafting a Community Response to Child Abuse and Violence.Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.
BryantD. P., KimS. A., HartmanP., & BryantB. (2006). Standards-based mathematics instruction and teaching middle school students with mathematical disabilities. In HarrisK. R., GrahamS. (Series Eds.), MontagueM., & JitendraA. K. (Eds.), Teaching mathematics to middle school students with learning difficulties. (Vol. 1, pp. 7–28). New York: Guilford.
16.
CalhoonM. B., & FuchsL. S. (2003). The effects of peer-assisted learning strategies and curriculum-based measurement on the mathematics performance of secondary students with disabilities.Remedial and Special Education, 24, 235–245.
17.
Carr-GeorgeC., VannestK. J., WilsonV., & DavisJ. L. (2009). The participation and performance of students with emotional and behavioral disorders in a state accountability assessment in reading.Behavioral Disorders, 35, 66–78.
18.
CauffmanE. (2004). A statewide assessment of mental health symptoms among juvenile offenders in detention.Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 430–439.
19.
ChitsabesanP., KrollL., BaileyS., KenningC., SneiderS., MacDonaldW., & TheodosiouL. (2006). Mental health needs of young offenders in custody and in the community.British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 534–540.
20.
Coalition for Juvenile Justice. (2000). Handle with care: Serving the mental health needs of young offenders. Coalition for Juvenile Justice 2000 Annual Report. The Sixteenth Annual Report to the President, the Congress, and the Administrator of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.Washington DC: Coalition for Juvenile Justice.
21.
CocozzaJ. J., & SkowyraK. R. (2000). Youth with mental health disorders: Issues and emerging responses.Juvenile Justice Journal, 7, 3–13.
22.
CoffeyO. D., & GemignaniM. G. (1994). Effective practices in juvenile correctional education: A study of the literature and research, 1980–1992.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. The National Office for Social Responsibility.
23.
ConnorD. F. (2002). Aggression and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: Research and treatment.New York: Guilford.
24.
CoulterG. (2004). Using one-to-one tutoring and proven reading strategies to improve reading performance with adjudicated youth.Journal of Correctional Education, 55, 321–333.
25.
DanielsonL., CobbB., SanchezS., LaneK., & HornerR. (2007). Evidence-based practices: A technical assistance perspective. Presentation given as part of the 2007 Office of Special Education Projects Project Directors’ Conference, Washington, DC.
26.
DrakefordW. (2002). The impact of an intensive program to increase literacy skills of youth confined to juvenile corrections.Journal of Correctional Education, 53, 139–144.
27.
EvansW., AlpersE., MacariD., & MasonA. (1996). Suicide ideation, attempts and abuse among gang and nongang delinquents.Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 13, 115–126.
28.
FoleyR. M. (2001). Academic characteristics of incarcerated youth and correctional education programs: A literature review.Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9, 248–259.
29.
GagnonJ. C., BarberB. R., Van LoanC. L., & LeoneP. E. (2009). Juvenile correctional schools: Characteristics and approaches to curriculum.Education and Treatment of Children, 32, 673–696.
30.
GagnonJ. C., & MacciniP. (2007). Teacher use of empirically-validated and standards-based instructional approaches in secondary mathematics.Remedial & Special Education, 28, 43–56.
31.
GagnonJ. C., & RichardsC. (2008). Making the right turn: A guide about youth involved in the juvenile corrections system (pp. 1–61). Washington, DC: National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth, Institute for Educational Leadership.
32.
GagnonJ. C., RockwellS., & ScottT. M. (2008). Positive behavior supports in exclusionary schools: A practical approach based on what we know.Focus on Exceptional Children, 41(1), 1–20.
33.
GagnonJ. C., WehbyJ., StrongA., & FalkK. B. (2006). Effective mathematics and reading instruction for secondary-age youths with emotional and behavioral disorders. In BullockL. M., GableR. A., & MelloyK. J. (Eds.), Sixth CCBD mini-library series (pp. 1–57). Arlington, VA: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
34.
GreenL. W. (2001). From research to “best practices” in other settings and populations.American Journal of Health Behavior, 25, 15–178.
35.
GreenbaumP. E., DedrickR. F., FriedmanR. M., KutashK., BrownE. C., LardieriS. P., & PughA. M. (1996). National adolescent and child treatment study (NACTS): Outcomes for children with serious emotional and behavioral disturbance.Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 130–146.
36.
GreenwoodP. (2008). Prevention and intervention programs for juvenile offenders.The Future of Children, 18, 185–210.
37.
GreenwoodP., & TurnerS. (2009). An overview of prevention and intervention programs for juvenile offenders.Victims & Offenders, 4, 365–374.
38.
GreshamF. M. (2005). Response to intervention: An alternative means of identifying students as emotionally disturbed.Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 328–344.
39.
GreshamF. M. (2007). Response to intervention and emotional and behavioral disorders: Best practices in assessment for intervention.Assessment for Effective Intervention, 32, 214–222.
40.
GrissoT. (2008). Adolescent offenders with mental disorders.The Future of Children, 18(2), 143–164.
41.
GuerraN. G., KimT. E., & BoxerP. (2008). What works: Best practices with juvenile offenders. In HogeR. D., GuerraN. G., & BoxerP. (Eds.), Treating the juvenile Offender (pp. 77–102). New York: Guilford.
42.
GuerraN. G., & LeafC. (2008). Implementing treatment programs in community and institutional settings. In HogeR. D., GuerraN. G., & BoxerP. (Eds.), Treating the juvenile Offender (pp. 103–112). New York: Guilford.
43.
GuerraN. G., & SlabyR. G. (1990). Cognitive mediators of aggression in adolescent offenders: II. Intervention.Developmental Psychology, 26, 269–277.
44.
HarrisP. J., BaltodanoH. M., BalA., JolivetteK., & MulcahyC. (2009). Reading achievement of incarcerated youth in three regions.Journal of Correctional Education, 60, 120–145.
45.
HjalmarssonR. (2008). Criminal justice involvement and high school completion.Journal of Urban Economics, 63, 613–630.
46.
HooverJ. J., BacaL., Wexler-LoveE., & SaenzL. (2008). National implementation of response to intervention (RTI): Research summary. Retrieved from University of Colorado-Boulder, Special Education Leadership and Quality Teacher Initiative, BUENO Center-School of Education website http://www.nasdse.Org/Portals/0/NationallmplementationofRTI-ResearchSummary.pdf
47.
HouchinsD. E., JolivetteK., KrezmienM. P., & BaltodanoH. M. (2008). A multi-state study examining the impact of explicit reading instruction with incarcerated students.Journal of Correctional Education, 59, 65–85.
48.
HowellJ. C., & LipseyM. W. (2004). A practical approach to evaluating and improving juvenile justice programs.Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 55, 35–48.
49.
KatsiyannisA., & ArchwametyT. (1999). Academic remediation/achievement and other factors related to recidivism rates among delinquent youths.Behavioral Disorders, 24, 93–101.
50.
KatsiyannisA., RyanJ. B., ZhangD., & SpannA. (2008). Juvenile delinquency and recidivism: The impact of academic achievement.Reading & Writing Quarterly, 24, 177–196.
51.
KazdinA. (2000). Adolescent Development, Mental Disorders, and Decision Making of Delinquent Youths. In GrissoT., & SchwartzR. (Eds.), Youth on trial: A developmental perspective on juvenile justice (pp. 33–65). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
52.
KrezmienM. P., MulcahyC. A., & LeoneP. E. (2008). Detained and committed youth: Examining differences in achievement, mental health needs, and special education status.Education and Treatment of Children, 31, 445–464.
53.
KurtzZ., ThornesR., & BaileyS. (1998). Children in the criminal justice and secure care systems: How their mental health needs are met.Journal of Adolescence, 21, 543–53.
54.
LandenbergerN. A., & LipseyM. W. (2005). Positive effects of cognitive-behavioral programs for offenders: A meta-analysis of factors associated with effective treatment.Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1, 451–476.
55.
LaneK. L., Barton-ArwoodS. M., NelsonJ. R., & WehbyJ. (2008). Academic performance of students with emotional and behavioral disorders served in a self-contained setting.Journal of Behavioral Education, 17, 43–62.
56.
LaneK. L., CarterE. W., PiersonM. R., & GlaeserB. C. (2006). Academic, social, and behavioral characteristics of high school students with emotional disturbances or learning disabilities.Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14, 108–117.
57.
LatessaE. (2006). Effectiveness of cognitive behavioral interventions for youthful offenders: Review of the research. In GlickB. (Ed.), Cognitive behavioral interventions with at-risk youth (pp. 1–17). Kingston, NJ: Civic Research Institute.
58.
LeeJ., GriggW., & DionG. (2007). The Nation's Report Card: Mathematics 2007 (NCES 2007-494). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
59.
LeoneP. E. (1994). Education services for youth with disabilities in a state-operated juvenile correctional system: Case study and analysis.Journal of Special Education, 28, 43–58.
60.
LeoneP. E., & CuttingC. A. (2004). Appropriate education, juvenile corrections, and No Child Left Behind.Behavioral Disorders, 29, 260–265.
61.
LeoneP. E., KrezmienM., MasonL., & MeiselS. M. (2005). Organizing and delivering empirically based literacy instruction to incarcerated youth.Exceptionality, 13, 89–102.
62.
LipseyM. W. (2009). The primary factors that characterize effective interventions with juvenile offenders: A meta-analytic overview.Victims & Offenders, 4, 124–147.
63.
LipseyM. W., ChapmanG. L., & LandenbergerN. A. (2001). Cognitive-behavioral programs for offenders.The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 578, 144–157.
64.
LipseyM. W., & CullenF. T. (2007). The effectiveness of correctional rehabilitation: A review of systematic reviews.Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 3, 279–320.
65.
LoeberR., BurkeJ., & LaheyB. (2002). What are the antecedents to an antisocial personality disorder?Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 12, 24–36.
66.
LyonG. R. (1995). Research initiatives in learning disabilities: Contributions from scientists supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.Journal of Child Neurology, 10(Suppl. 1), S120–S126.
67.
MacciniP., & GagnonJ. C. (2002). Perceptions and application of NCTM's standards by special and general education teachers: Implications for practice for secondary students with emotional and learning disabilities.Exceptional Children, 68, 325–344.
68.
MacciniP., & GagnonJ. C. (2006). Nature and type of mathematics instructional approaches by special and general education teachers.Exceptional Children, 72, 217–234.
69.
MacciniP., GagnonJ. C., CuttingC., & LeoneP. (2006). Mathematics instruction within a juvenile correctional school for committed youth.Journal of Correctional Education, 57, 210–229.
70.
MacciniP., McNaughtonD. B., & RuhlK. (1999). Algebra instruction for students with learning disabilities: Implications from a research review.Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 22, 113–126.
71.
MacciniP., MulcahyC., & WilsonM. G. (2007). A follow-up of mathematics interventions for secondary students with learning disabilities.Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22, 58–74.
72.
MacciniP., StricklandT., GagnonJ. C., & MalmgrenK. W. (2008). Accessing the general education math curriculum for secondary students with high incidence disabilities.Focus on Exceptional Children, 40(8), 1–32.
73.
MalmgrenK. W., GagnonJ. C., MelekogluM. A., & CakirogluO. (2009). Reading instruction in alternative settings: A survey of secondary special educators in day treatment and residential schools (pp. 1–23). Unpublished manuscript.
74.
MalmgrenK., & LeoneP. (2000). Effects of an auxiliary program on the reading skills of juvenile delinquents.Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 239–247.
75.
MastropieriM. A., & ScruggsT. E. (2005). Feasibility and consequences of response to intervention: Examining the issues and scientific evidence as a model for the identification of individuals with learning difficulties.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 525–531.
76.
MastropieriM. A., ScruggsT. E., & GraetzJ. E. (2003). Reading comprehension instruction for secondary students: Challenges for struggling students and teachers.Learning Disability Quarterly, 26, 103–116.
77.
McClellandG. M., ElkingtonK. S., TeplinL. A., & AbramK. M. (2004). Multiple substance use disorders in juvenile detainees.Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1215–1224.
78.
McCordJ., Spatz-WidomC., & CrowellN. (2001). Juvenile Crime, Juvenile Justice: Panel on Juvenile Crime: Prevention, Treatment, and Control.Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
79.
McMackinR. A., LeisenM. B., SattlerL., KrinsleyK., & RiggsD. S. (2002). Preliminary development of trauma-focused treatment groups for incarcerated juvenile offenders.Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 6, 175–199.
80.
MearsD. P. (2001). Getting tough with juvenile offenders: Explaining support for sanctioning youths as adults.Criminal Justice Behavior, 28, 206–226.
81.
MearsD. P., ShollenbergerT. L., WillisonJ. B., OwensC. E., & ButtsJ. A. (2008). Practitioner views of priorities, policies, and practices in juvenile justice.Crime & Delinquency. Online-First, 0011128708324664v2. Retrieved from http://cad.sagepub.com/
82.
MeltzerL. J., LevineM. D., KarniskiW., PalfreyJ. S., & ClarkS. (1984). An analysis of the learning styles of adolescent delinquents.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 600–608.
83.
MorrisR. J., & ThompsonK. C. (2008). Juvenile delinquency and special education laws: Policy implementation issues and directions for future research.The Journal of Correctional Education, 59, 173–189.
84.
MulveyE. P., & IselinA. M. R. (2008). Improving professional judgments of risk and amenability in juvenile justice.Future of Children, 18(2), 35–57.
85.
MyersD. M., & FarrellA. F. (2008). Reclaiming lost opportunities: Applying public health models in juvenile justice.Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 1159–1177.
86.
National Council on Disability. (2003). Addressing the needs of youth with disabilities in the juvenile justice system: The current status of evidence-based research.Washington, D.C. Retrieved from National Council on Disability website http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/pdf/juvenile.pdf
87.
National Mental Health Association. (2004). Mental health treatment for youth in the juvenile justice system: A compendium of promising practices.Alexandria, VA: Author. Retrieved from National Mental Health Association website https://www.nttac.org/views/docs/jabg/mhcurriculum/mh_mht.pdf
88.
NelsonC. M., LeoneP. E., & RutherfordR. B. (2004). Youth delinquency: Prevention and intervention. In RutherfordR. B., QuinnM. M., & MathurS. R. (Eds.), Handbook of research in emotional and behavioral disorders (pp. 282–301). New York: Guilford.
89.
NelsonC. M., ScottT. M., CagnonJ. C., JolivetteK., & SpragueJ. (2008). Positive behavior support in the juvenile justice system.Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports Newsletter, 4(3), 1–9. Retrieved from Office of Special Education Programs Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports website http://www.pbis.org/pbis_newsletter/volume_4/issue3.aspx
90.
NelsonC. M., SugaiG., & SmithC. R. (2005). Positive behavior support offered in juvenile corrections.Counterpoint, 1(summer), 6–7.
91.
NelsonJ. R., BennerG. J., LaneK., & SmithB. W. (2004). Academic achievement of K—12 students with emotional and behavioral disorders.Exceptional Children, 71, 59–73.
92.
OseroffA., OseroffC. E., WestlingD., & GessnerL. J. (1999). Teachers’ beliefs about maltreatment of students with emotional/behavioral disorders.Behavioral Disorders, 24, 197–209.
93.
OvaertL. B., CashelM. L., & SewellK. W. (2003). Structured group therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in incarcerated male juveniles.American journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 294–301.
94.
PealerJ., & LatessaE. (2004, December). Applying the principles of effective interventions to juvenile correctional programs.Corrections Today, 66, 26–29.
95.
PearsonF. S., LiptonD. S., ClelandC. M., & YeeD. S. (2002). The effects of behavioral/cognitive-behavioral programs on recidivism.Crime & Delinquency, 48, 476–496.
96.
QuinnM. M., RutherfordR. B., LeoneP. E., OsherD. M., & PoirierJ. M. (2005). Youth with disabilities in juvenile corrections: A national survey.Exceptional Children, 71, 339–345.
97.
ReadN. W., QuinnM. M., & NelsonC. M. (2008). Positive behavioral interventions and supports in juvenile justice settings: What to expect and how to succeed. Retrieved from National Evaluation and Technical Assistance Center for the Education of Children and Youth who are Neglected, Delinquent, or At-risk website http://www.neglected-delinquent.org/nd/
98.
ReidR., GonzalesJ. E., NordnessP. D., TroutA., & EpsteinM. H. (2004). A meta-analysis of the academic status of students with emotional/behavioral disturbance.Journal of Special Education, 38, 130–143.
99.
RhodeP., JorgensenJ. S., SeelyJ. R., & MaceD. E. (2004). Pilot Evaluation of the Coping Course: A Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention to Enhance Coping Skills in Incarcerated Youth.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 669–676.
100.
RobinsonT. R., & RapportM. J. K. (1999). Providing special education in the juvenile justice system.Remedial and Special Education, 20, 19–35.
101.
RozalskiM. E., & EngleS. (2005). Literacy education in correctional facilities: The “hope” for technology.Reading & Writing Quarterly, 21, 301–305.
102.
Shelly-TremblayJ., O'BrienN., & Langhinrichsen-RohlingJ. (2007). Reading disability in adjudicated youth: Prevalence rates, current models, traditional and innovative treatments.Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12, 376–392.
103.
SheltonD. (2000). Health status of young offenders and their families.Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 32, 173–178.
104.
ShufeltJ., & CocozzaJ. (2006). Youth with mental health disorders in the juvenile justice system: Results from a multi-state prevalence study. Retrieved from National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice website http://www.ncmhjj.com/pdfs/publications/PrevalenceRPB.pdf
SimpsonS. B., SwansonJ. M., & KunkelK. (1992). The impact of an intensive multisensorial reading program on a population of learning-disabled delinquents.Annals of Dyslexia, 42, 54–66.
107.
SkowyraK., & CocozzaJ. J. (2006). A blueprint for change: Improving the system response to youth with mental health needs involved with the juvenile justice system.Research and program brief. Retrieved from National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice website http://www.ncmhjj.com/Blueprint
108.
SnowlingM. J., AdamsJ. W., Bowyer-CraneC., & TobinV. (2000). Levels of literacy among juvenile offenders: The incidence of specific reading difficulties.Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 10, 229–241.
109.
SteinbergL. (2009). Adolescent development and juvenile justice.Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 459–485.
110.
StizekG. A., PittsonbergerJ. L., RiordanK. E., LyterD. M., & OrlofskyG. F. (2007). Characteristics of schools, districts, teachers, principals, and school libraries in the United States 2003–2004: School and staffing survey (NCES 2006-313 Revised). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
111.
TeplinL. A., AbramK. M., McClellandG. M., DulcanM. K., & MericleA. A. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention.Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 1133–1143.
112.
TeplinL. A., AbramK. M., McClellandG. M., MericleA. A., DulcanM. K., & WashburnJ. J. (2006). Psychiatric disorders of youth in detention.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
113.
TroutA. L., NordnessP. D., PierceC. D., & EpsteinM. H. (2003). Research on the academic status of children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders: A review of the literature from 1961–2000.Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 198–210.
U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Government Reform-Minority Staff Special Investigation Division. (2004). Incarceration of youth who are waiting for community mental health services in the United States.Washington, DC: United States House of Representatives Committee on Government Reform-Minority Staff Special Investigation Division. Retrieved from National Criminal Justice Reference Center website http://www.ncjrs.gov/index.html
116.
WagnerM., KutashK., DuchnowskiA. J., EpsteinM. H., & SumiW. C. (2005). The children and youth we serve: A national picture of the characteristics of students with emotional disturbances receiving special education.Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 13, 79–96.
117.
WassermanG. A., McReynoldsL. S., KoS. J., KatzL. M., & CarpenterJ. R. (2005). Gender differences in psychiatric disorders at juvenile probation intake.American Journal of Public Health, 95, 131–137.
118.
WhiteH. R., & GormanD. M. (2000). Dynamics of the drug-crime relationship.Criminal Justice, 1, 151–218.
119.
WilkersonK. L., GagnonJ. C., & MasonL. (2010). Reading instruction in juvenile correctional facilities for students with high incidence disabilities. Unpublished manuscript.
120.
XinY. P., JitendraA. K., & Deatline-BuchmanA. (2005). Effects of mathematical word problem-solving instruction on middle school students with learning problems.The Journal of Special Education, 39, 181–192.
121.
YoungD. (2004). First count to ten: Innovation and implementation in juvenile reintegration programs.Federal Probation, 68, 70–77.
122.
ZamoraD. (2005). Levels of academic achievement and further delinquency among detained youth.The Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice, 2, 42–53.
