To compare cognitive performance between children with cochlear implants (CI) and normal-hearing peers; provide information about correlations between cognitive performance, basic academic achievement, and medical/audiological and social background variables; and assess the predictor quality of these variables for cognition.
Study Design
Cross-sectional study with comparison group, diagnostic test assessment.
Setting
Data were collected in the authors’ clinic (children with CI) and in Austrian schools (normal-hearing children).
Subjects and Methods
Forty children with CI (of the initial 65 children eligible for this study), aged 7 to 11 years, and 40 normal-hearing children, matched by age and sex, were tested with (a) the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT); (b) the Number Sequences subtest of the Heidelberger Rechentest 1-4 (HRT); (c) Comprehension, (d) Coding, (e) Digit Span, and (f) Vocabulary subtests of HAWIK III (German WISC III); (g) the Corsi Block Tapping Test; (h) the Arithmetic Operations subtests of the HRT; and (i) Salzburger Lese–Screening (SLS, reading). In addition, medical, audiological, social, and educational data from children with CI were collected.
Results
The children with CI equaled normal-hearing children in (a), (d), (e), (g), (h), and (i) and performed significantly worse in (b), (c) and (f). Background variables correlate significantly with cognitive skills and academic achievement. Medical/audiological variables explain 44.3% of the variance in CFT1 (CFIT, younger children). Social variables explain 55% of CFT1 and 24.5% of the Corsi test.
Conclusions
This study augments the knowledge about cognitive skills and academic skills of children with CI. Cognitive performance is dependent on the early feasibility to hear and the social/educational background of the family.
GeersATobeyEMoogJBrennerC. Long-term outcomes of cochlear implantation in the preschool years: from elementary grades to high school. Int J Audiol. 2008;47(suppl 2):S21-S30.
3.
ConnorCMZwolanTA. Examining multiple sources of influence on the reading comprehension skills of children who use cochlear implants. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2004;47:509-526.
4.
ConnorCMCraigHKRaudenbuschSW. The age at which young deaf children receive cochlear implants and their vocabulary and speech-production growth: is there an added value for early implantation?Ear Hear. 2006;27:628-644.
5.
HayesHGeersATreimanRMoogJS. Receptive vocabulary development in deaf children with cochlear implants: achievement in an intensive auditory-oral educational setting. Ear Hear. 2009;30:128-135.
6.
GeersAENicholasJGSedeyAL. Language skills of children with early cochlear implantation. Ear Hear. 2003;24(1)(suppl):46S-58S.
7.
WileySJahnkeMMeinzen-DerrJChooD. Perceived qualitative benefits of cochlear implants in children with multi-handicaps.Int J Pediatric Otorhinolaryngol. 2005;69:791-798.
8.
RepovšGBaddelyA. The multi-component model of working memory: explorations in experimental cognitive psychology. Neuroscience. 2006;28;139:5-21.
9.
BaddeleyAHitchG. Working Memory. In: GowerGH, ed. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation. Vol 8. London: Academic Press; 1974.
10.
BaddeleyA. Working Memory. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 1986.
11.
BaddeleyA. The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?Trends Cogn Sci. 2000;4:417-423.
12.
GathercoleSEAllowayTP. Practitioner review: short-term and working memory impairments in neurodevelopmental disorders: diagnosis and remedial support. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47:4-15.
13.
AllowayTPGathercoleSEKirkwoodH. The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory. Child Dev. 2009;80:606-621.
14.
KnudsenEI. Fundamental components of attention. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2007;30:57-78.
15.
FinneranDAFrancisALLeonardLB. Sustained attention in children with specific language impairment (SLI). J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2009;52:915-929.
16.
MajerusSHeiligensteinLGautherotNPonceletMVan der LindenM. Impact of auditory selective attention on verbal short-term memory and vocabulary development. J Exp Child Psychol. 2009;103:66-86.
17.
MaehlerCSchuchardK. Working memory functioning in children with learning disabilities: does intelligence make a difference?J Intellect Disabil Res. 2009;53:3-10.
18.
CowanNFristoeNMElliottEMBrunnerRPSaultsJS. Scope of attention, control of attention, and intelligence in children and adults. Mem Cognit. 2006;34:1754-1768.
19.
GathercoleSETiffanyCBriscoeJThornA, ALSPAC team.Developmental consequences of poor phonological short-term memory function in childhood: a longitudinal study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005;46:598-611.
20.
KyttäläMAunioPHauamäkiJ. Working memory resources in young children with mathematical difficulties. Scand J Psychol. 2010;51:1-15.
21.
KrajewskiKSchneiderW. Exploring the impact of phonological awareness, visual-spatial working memory, and preschool quantity-number competencies on mathematics achievement in elementary school: findings from a 3-year longitudinal study. J Exp Child Psychol. 2009;103:516-531.
22.
HornDLDavisRAOPisoniDB. Development of visual attention skills in prelingually deaf children who use cochlear implants. Ear Hear. 2005;26:389-408.
23.
TharpeAMAshmedDHRothpletzAM. Visual attention in children with normal hearing, children with hearing aids, and children with cochlear implants. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2002;45:403-413.
24.
WassMIbertssonTLyxellB. Cognitive and linguistic skills in Swedish children with cochlear implants: measures of accuracy and latency as indicators of development. Scand J Psychol. 2008;49:559-576.
25.
FaganMKPisoniDBHornDL. Neuropsychological correlates of vocabulary, reading, and working memory in deaf children with cochlear implants. J Deaf Deaf Educ. 2007;12:461-471.
26.
DawsonPWBusbyPAMcKayCM. Short-term auditory memory in children using cochlear implants and its relevance to receptive language. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2002;45:789-801.
27.
DillonCMBurkholderRAClearyM. Nonword repetition by children with cochlear implants: accuracy ratings from normal-hearing listeners. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2004;47:1103-1116.
28.
Willstedt-SvenssonULofqvistAAlmqvistB. Is age at implant the only factor that counts? The influence of working memory on lexical and grammatical development in children with cochlear implants. Int J Audiol. 2004;43:506-515.
29.
WatsonDRTittertonJHenryATonerAG. Auditory sensory memory and working memory processes in children with normal hearing and cochlear implants. Audiol Neurootol. 2007;12:65-76.
30.
LyxellBSahlénBWassM. Cognitive development in children with cochlear implants: relations to reading and communication. Int J Audiol. 2008;47(suppl 2):47-52.
31.
JohnsonCGoswamiU. Phonological awareness, vocabulary, and reading in deaf children with cochlear implants. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2010;53:237-261.
32.
ThoutenhoofdE. Cochlear implanted pupils in Scottish schools: 4-year school attainment data (2000-2004). J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ. 2006;11:171-188.
33.
MukariSZLingLNGhaniHA. Educational performance of pediatric cochlear implant recipients in mainstream classes. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;71:231-240.
34.
Motasaddi-ZarandyMRezaiHMahdavi-ArabMGolestanB. The scholastic achievement of profoundly deaf children with cochlear implants compared to their normal peers. Arch Iran Med. 2009;12:441-447.
35.
PunchRHydeM. Children with cochlear implants in Australia: educational settings, supports, and outcomes. J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ. 2010;15:405-421.
36.
PulsiferMBSalorioCFNiparkoJK. Developmental, audiological, and speech perception functioning in children after cochlear implant surgery. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:552-558.
37.
SchlumbergerENarbonaJManriqueM. Non-verbal development of children with deafness with and without cochlear implants. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46:599-606.
38.
KhanSEdwardLLangdonD. The cognition and behaviour of children with cochlear implants, children with hearing aids and their hearing peers: a comparison. Audiol Neurootol. 2005;10:117-126.
39.
WuCMLeeHLHwangJH. Intellectual ability of Mandarin-speaking children using cochlear implants. Audiol Neurootol. 2008;13:302-308.
40.
CattellRB. Handbook for the Culture Fair Intelligence Test, Scale 1. Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing; 1966.
BurkholderRAPisoniDB. Speech timing and working memory in profoundly deaf children after cochlear implantation. J Exp Child Psychol. 2003;85:63-88.
48.
PisoniCBClaryM. Measures of working memory span and verbal rehearsal speed in deaf children after cochlear implantation. Ear Hear. 2003;24(suppl):106S-120S.
49.
PetermannFPetermannU. Hamburg-Wechsler Intelligenztest für Kinder–IV (HAWIK-IV). Bern, Germany: Huber, 2007.
MayringerHWimmerH. Salzburger Lese- Screening für die Klassenstufen 1-4. Bern, Germany: Huber; 2005.
52.
AuerMGruberGMayringerHWimmerH. Salzburger Lese- Screening für die Klassenstufen 5-8. Bern, Germany: Huber; 2005/2008.
53.
SiningerYSGrimesAChristensenE. Auditory development in early amplified children: factors influencing auditory-based communication outcomes in children with hearing loss. Ear Hear. 2010;31:166-185.
54.
FisherAV. What’s in the name? Or how rocks and stones are different from bunnies and rabbits. J Exp Child Psychol. 2010;105:198-212.
55.
HauserPCO’HearnAMcKeeMSteiderAThewD. Deaf epistemology: deafhood and deafness. Am Ann Deaf. 2010;154:486-492.
56.
MelchiorMMoffittTEMilneBJPoultonRCaspiA. Why do children from socioeconomically disadvantaged families suffer from poor health when they reach adulthood? A life-course study. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;166:966-974.
57.
GreenGEScottDAMcDonaldJM. Performance of cochlear implant recipients with GJB2-related deafness. Am J Med Genet. 2002;109:167-170.
58.
PiersonSKCaudleSEKrullKRHaymondJToniniROghalaiJS. Cognition in children with sensorineural hearing loss: etiologic considerations. Laryngoscope. 2007;117:1661-1665.
59.
ClearyMPisoniDGeersAE. Some measures of verbal and spatial working memory in eight- and nine-year-old hearing-impaired children with cochlear implants. Ear Hear. 2001;22:395-411.
60.
DyeMWHauserPCBavelierD. Is visual selective attention in deaf individuals enhanced or deficient? The case of the useful field of view. PLoS One. 2009;4:e5640.
61.
DyeMWBavelierD. Attentional enhancements and deficits in deaf populations: an integrative review. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2010;28:181-192.
62.
QuittnerALSmithLBOsbergerMJ. The impact of audition on the development of visual-attention. Psychol Sci. 1994;5:347-353.
63.
SmithLBQuittnerALOsbergerMJMiyamotoR. Audition and visual attention: the developmental trajectory in deaf and hearing populations. Dev Psychol. 1998;34:840-850.
64.
YucelEDerimD. The effect of implantation age on visual attention skills. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;72:869-877.
65.
ShinMSKimSKKimSSParkMHKimCSOhSH. Comparison of cognitive function in deaf children between before and after cochlear implant. Ear Hear. 2007;28(2)(suppl):22S-28S.
66.
ArchboldSHarrisMO’DonoghueGNikolopoulosTWhiteARichmondHL. Reading abilities after cochlear implantation: the effect of age at implantation on outcomes at 5 and 7 years after implantation. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;72:1471-1478.
67.
International Labor Office (ILO). ISCO-88: International Standard Classification of Occupations. Geneva, Switzerland: ILO; 1990. www.warwick.ac.uk/ier/
