Statistical methods for program evaluation with nonexperimental data have been studied by
economists and econometricians over the last 20 years. These methods are concerned with laying
out the precise circumstances under which valid nonexperimental estimates of the effects of an
intervention can be obtained, and then with methods for determining when and if those
circumstances hold. This article provides a simple exposition of the methods of identification
that have been developed and draws the lessons of those methods for future evaluation designs,
data collection, and analysis.
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