The Grass Ceiling: An Investigation into What Drives Gender Exclusion in Golf

Abstract

No sport is as closely tied to the business world as golf, which has long served as a powerful networking tool. Historically the game has been dominated by male players, reinforcing the perception of golf as an “old boys club,” where access to influential networks is disproportionally available to men. This exclusivity creates a double-barreled impact, as it perpetuates systemic inequities that restrict women's full participation in both leisure and professional settings. With only 26% of golfers identifying as women, the sport remains a male-dominated space amplifying the challenges of tokenism, statistical discrimination, and social closure. This imbalance also persists in the business world, where women hold only 29% of C-suite positions and where 90% of chief executive officers golf. This study explores the interconnected structural, cultural, and historical barriers that contribute to the “grass ceiling,” by applying the frameworks of tokenism, statistical discrimination, and social closure. Findings from a survey of 323 business professionals reveal that women are more likely to encounter discrimination and perceive golf as less accessible than men. Moreover, the impact of tokenism heightens visibility pressures on women golfers, statistical discrimination reinforces gendered stereotypes, and social closure mechanisms maintain institutional barriers to access. Men, on the other hand, report higher satisfaction and greater perceived benefits from golf. To address these inequities, this study provides recommendations for the golf industry and business leaders to address structural barriers and modernize golf's cultural narratives. By tackling these barriers, golf can move beyond its exclusionary past and become a more inclusive, equitable, environment in both leisure and professional settings.