The Experiences,and Effects,of Racial Mistreatments in the Lives of Black Male Collegiate Football Players: A Qualitative Analysis

Abstract

Black male college athletes historically have endured racial mistreatment, particularly at Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs). Yet research examining how these athletes, particularly football players in Power Five conferences, experience such mistreatments and the effects they have on their psychological health and well-being has been sparse. Thus, we interviewed 13 current Black male college football players to document their experiences. Through reflexive thematic analysis, we determined that the athletes (a) believed that football defined and limited them, (b) felt misunderstood and isolated on campus, (b) were dehumanized and criminalized, and (d) were physically and psychologically exhausted from chronic racial mistreatments. There remains a clear need for clinical, policy, and systemic changes to support the mental health needs of Black male college athletes.

Keywords

Male collegiate athletes football black/African American racism psychological well-being

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Anglin

D. M.

Wade

J. C.

(2007). Racial socialization, racial identity, and Black students’ adjustment to college. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(3), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.3.207

Asmelash

. (2020, July 25). WNBA dedicates season to Breonna Taylor and Say Her Name campaign. CNN.com. https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/25/us/wnba-season-start-breonna-taylor-cnn/index.html

Ballesteros

Tran

A. G. T. T.

(2020). Under the face mask: Racial-ethnic minority student-athletes and mental health use. Journal of American College Health, 68(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1536663

Beamon

(2008). Used goods: African American student-athletes’ perception of exploitation by division I universities. The Journal of Negro Education, 77(4), 352–364. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25608704

Beamon

(2014). Racism and stereotyping on campus: Experiences of African American male student-athletes. The Journal of Negro Education, 83(2), 121–134. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.83.2.0121

Bimper

Harrison

Clark

(2012). Diamonds in the rough: Examining a case of successful black male student athletes in college sport. Journal of Black Psychology, 39(2), 107–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798412454676

Bimper

A. Y.

(2015). Lifting the veil: Exploring colorblind racism in Black student athlete experiences. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 39(3), 225–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723513520013

Bonilla-Silva

(2017). What we were, what we are, and what we should be: The racial problem of American sociology. Social Problems, 64(2), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spx006

Braun

Clarke

(2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

10.

Braun

Clarke

(2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806

11.

Braun

Clarke

Weate

(2016). Using thematic analysis in sport and exercise research. In Smith

Sparkes

A. C.

(Eds.), Routledge handbook of qualitative research in sport and exercise (pp. 191–205). Routledge.

12.

Brooks

D. D.

Althouse

R. C.

(Eds.). (2013). Racism in college athletics: The African American athlete's experience (3rd ed.). Fitness Information Technology.

13.

Campbell

J. L.

Quincy

Osserman

Pedersen

O. K.

(2013). Coding in-depth semistructured interviews: Problems of unitization and intercoder reliability and agreement. Sociological Methods & Research, 42(3), 294–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124113500475

14.

Comeaux

(2010). Racial differences in faculty perceptions of collegiate student-athletes’ academic and post-undergraduate achievements. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27(4), 390–412. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.27.4.390

15.

Comeaux

(2018). Stereotypes, control, hyper-surveillance, and disposability of NCAA division I black male athletes. In Gayles

J. G.

(Ed.), Special issues: Critical issues for student athletes: Going behind the invisible wall (pp. 33–42). Wiley.

16.

Cooper

J. N.

(2016). Excellence beyond athletics: Best practices for enhancing Black male student athletes’ educational experiences and outcomes. Equity & Excellence in Education, 49(3), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2016.1194097

17.

Cooper

J. N.

Hawkins

(2014). The transfer effect: A critical race theory examination of black male transfer student athletes’ experiences. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 7(1), 80–104. https://doi.org/10.1123/jis.2013-0033

18.

Cosh

Tully

P. J.

(2015). Stressors, coping, and support mechanisms for student athletes combining elite sport and tertiary education: Implications for practice. The Sport Psychologist, 29(2), 120–133. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2014-0102

19.

Davoren

A. K.

Hwang

(2014). Depression and anxiety prevalence in student-athletes. In Brown

G. T.

Hainline

Kroshus

Wilfert

(Eds.), Mind, body and sport: Understanding and supporting student-athlete mental wellness (pp. 38–39). National Collegiate Athletic Association.

20.

Drew

Petrie

T. A.

Palmateer

(2021). National Collegiate Athletic Association athletic departments’ mental health screening practices: Who, what, when, and how. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 17(2), 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2021-0036

21.

Fuller

R. D

. (2017). Perception or reality: The relationship between stereotypes, discrimination, and the academic outcomes of African American male college athletes. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 41(5), 402–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723517719664

22.

Fuller

R. D.

Harrison

C. K.

Bukstein

S. J.

Martin

B. E.

Lawrence

S. M.

Gadsby

(2020). That smart dude: A qualitative investigation of the African American male scholar-baller identity. Urban Education, 55(5), 813–831. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916668955

23.

Giacobbi

P. R.

Lynn

T. K.

Wetherington

J. M.

Jenkins

Bodendorf

Langley

(2004). Stress and coping during the transition to university for first-year female athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 18(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.18.1.1

24.

Griffin

(2017). Who is whistling Vivaldi? How Black football players engage with stereotype threats in college. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 30(4), 354–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2016.1250174

25.

Hart

A. R.

Lavner

J. A.

Carter

S. E.

Beach

S. R. H.

(2021). Racial discrimination, depressive symptoms, and sleep problems among blacks in the rural south. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(1), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000365

26.

Higginbotham

G. D.

Shropshire

Johnson

K. L.

(2022). You play a sport, right? A persistent and pernicious intersectional bias in categorization of students vs. Student-athletes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48(11), 1531–1547. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211044067

27.

Hodge

S. R.

Harrison

L.,

Jr. Burden

J. W.,

Jr. Dixson

A. D.

(2008). Brown in Black and White—Then and now: A question of educating or sporting African American males in America. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(7), 928–952. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207311998

28.

Horn

. (2020, June 15). College football star threatened boycott over coach’s support for far-right channel. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-protests-for-racial-justice/2020/06/15/877640675/college-football-star-threatens-boycott-over-coachs-support-for-far-right-tv-cha

29.

Husch Blackwell. (2020). Football Program Culture: University of Iowa. Retrieved from https://president.uiowa.edu/sites/president.uiowa.edu/files/4816-8136-3909.1%20FINAL%20Iowa%20Football%20Overall%20Climate%20Report.pdf

30.

Iacobelli

. (2020, December 22). Study: Graduation gap widens between white, Black athletes. Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/college-football-ohio-state-buckeyes-football-central-florida-knights-football-football-notre-dame-fighting-irish-football-154f1dc4df3c6aebc069547e1021cbe0

31.

Jackson

J. S.

Keiper

Brown

K. T.

Brown

T. N.

Manuel

(2002). Athletic identity, racial attitudes, and aggression in first-year Black and White intercollegiate athletes. In Gatz

Messner

M. A.

Ball-Rokeach

S. J.

(Eds.), Paradoxes of youth and sport (pp. 159–172). State University of New York Press.

32.

Kiefer

H. R.

Petrie

T. A.

Walls

(2023). The transition from collegiate sport: An analysis of the current retirement planning practices of NCAA institutions. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 17(1), 66–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/19357397.2021.2013101

33.

Lapchick

R. E.

(2011). Keeping score when it counts: Graduation success and academic progress rates for the 2011 NCAA Division 1 Men’s Basketball Tournament Teams. The Institute for Ethics and Diversity and Sport. Retrieved from http://tidesport.org/Grad%20Rates/2011_Mens_Bball_FINAL.Pdf

34.

Lawrence

S. M.

(2005). African American athletes’ experiences of race in sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 40(1), 99–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690205052171

35.

Martin

B. E.

Harrison

C. K.

Stone

Lawrence

S. M.

(2010). Athletic voices and academic victories: African American male student-athlete experiences in the Pac-Ten. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 34(2), 131–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723510366541

36.

McCants & Ramsay v . (2011). The National Collegiate Athletics Association & The University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill (2011), https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp-content/uploads/sites/42/2015/01/UNC-Complaint-Filed-Copy-1-22-15.pdf

37.

Melendez

M. C.

(2008). Black football players on a predominantly White college campus: Psychosocial and emotional realities of the Black college athlete experience. Journal of Black Psychology, 34(4), 423–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798408319874

38.

Nadal

K. L.

Davidoff

K. C.

Allicock

Serpe

C. R.

(2017). Perceptions of police, racial profiling, and psychological outcomes: A mixed methodological study. Journal of Social Issues, 73(4), 808–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12249

39.

NCAA Student-Athlete Well-Being Study. (2020). https://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/ncaa-student-athlete-covid-19-well-being-study

40.

Obach

(1999). Demonstrating the social construction of race. Teaching Sociology, 27(3), 252–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/1319325

41.

Petrie

T. A.

Greenleaf

Reel

Carter

(2008). Prevalence of eating disorders and disordered eating behaviors among male collegiate athletes. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(4), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013178

42.

Ramaeker

Petrie

(2019). “Man up!”: Exploring intersections of sport participation, masculinity, psychological distress, and help-seeking attitudes. Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 20(4), 515–527. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000198

43.

Rubin

L. M.

Fuller

Stokowski

(2022). “I might as well get my education”: The experiences of Black male division III college athletes. Journal of Athlete Development and Experience, 4(1), 17–36. https://doi.org/10.25035/jade.04.01.03

44.

Sadberry

Mobley

(2013). Sociocultural and mental health adjustment of black student athletes: Within-group differences and institutional setting. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 7(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.7.1.1

45.

Sailes

G. A.

(1993). An investigation of campus stereotypes: The myth of Black athletic superiority and the dumb jock stereotype. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10(1), 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.10.1.88

46.

Saunders

Sim

Kingstone

Baker

Waterfield

Bartlam

Burroughs

Jinks

(2018). Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & Quantity, 52(4), 1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8

47.

Shadravan

S. M.

Barcelo

N. E.

(2021). Social injustice and mental health inequities. In Shim

R. S.

Vinson

S. Y.

(Eds.), Social (in)justice and mental health (pp. 46). American Psychiatric Association Publishing.

48.

Shim

R. S.

Compton

M. T.

(2021). Social injustice and the social determinants of mental health. In Shim

R. S.

Vinson

S. Y.

(Eds.), Social (in)justice and mental health (pp. 13–30). American Psychiatric Association Publishing.

49.

Simons

H. D.

Bosworth

Fujita

Jensen

(2007). The athlete stigma in higher education. College Student Journal, 41(2), 251–274. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A163678994/AONE?u=umuser&sid=googleScholar&xid=e6ececc9

50.

Singer

J. N.

(2005). Understanding racism through the eyes of African American male student athletes. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(4), 365–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320500323963

51.

Slavin

L. E.

Palmateer

T. M.

Petrie

T. A.

Moore

E. W. G.

(2022). Collegiate student-athlete psychological distress and counseling utilization during COVID-19. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 17(1), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2021-0091

52.

Smiley

C. J.

Fakunle

(2016). From “brute” to “thug:” The demonization and criminalization of unarmed Black male victims in America. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 26(3-4), 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2015.1129256

53.

Smith

McGannon

K. R.

(2018). Developing rigor in qualitative research: Problems and opportunities within sport and exercise psychology. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2017.1317357

54.

Smith

W. A.

Allen

W. R.

Danley

L. L.

(2007). “Assume the position … you fit the description”: Psychosocial experiences and racial battle fatigue among African American male college students. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(4), 551–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207307742

55.

Smith

W. A.

Hung

Franklin

J. D

. (2011). Racial battle fatigue and the miseducation of Black men: Racial microaggressions, societal problems, and environmental stress. The Journal of Negro Education, 80(1), 63–82. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41341106

56.

Sparkes

A. C.

Smith

(2013). Qualitative research methods in sport, exercise and health: From process to product. Routledge.

57.

Steinfeldt

J. A.

Reed

Steinfeldt

M. C.

(2010). Racial and athletic identity of African American football players at historically black colleges and universities and predominantly white institutions. Journal of Black Psychology, 36(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798409353894

58.

Steinfeldt

J. A.

Steinfeldt

M. C

. (2012). Profile of masculine norms and help-seeking stigma in college football. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024919

59.

Stone

Harrison

C. K.

Mottley

(2012). “Don’t call me a student-athlete”: The effect of identity priming on stereotype threat for academically engaged African American college athletes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 34(2), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2012.655624

60.

Strehlow

Foster

S. J. L.

Fuller

Ridpath

B. D.

Fridley

Stokowski

(2021). Division I college athletes’ self-perception: Investigating the impact of race and discrimination. Journal of Athlete Development and Experience, 3(3), 150–169. https://doi.org/10.25035/jade.03.03.01

61.

Sue

D. W.

Capodilupo

C. M.

Torino

G. C.

Bucceri

J. M.

Holder

A. M. B.

Nadal

K. L.

Esquilin

. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. The American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271

62.

Thies

C. F

. (2021, September 23). The integration of college football. American Institute for Economic Research. https://www.aier.org/article/the-integration-of-college-football/

63.

Tran

A. G. T. T.

Holzapfel

Lam

C. K.

Eustice

K. L

. (2023). Race and student-athlete status: Peer appraisals of academic skills, intelligence, and favorability. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 16(3), 346–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000339

64.

Winters

M. F.

(2020). Black fatigue: How racism erodes the mind, body, and spirit. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

65.

Yang

Schaefer

J. T.

Zhang

Covassin

Ding

Heiden

(2014). Social support from the athletic trainer and symptoms of depression and anxiety at return to play. Journal of Athletic Training, 49(6), 773–779. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-49.3.65

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.04 MB