“ That Conversation within the Conversation ”: A Mixed Methods Study of Skin Tone and Black Parents’ Racial Socialization

Abstract

This study examines whether there is a relation between assigned skin tone and parental racial socialization of their young children (ages 5–8). The concurrent mixed methods design combined quantitative and qualitative findings to explore the complexity and role skin tones play in Black parents’ messages to their children. In the quantitative strand, 178 Black parents completed a survey and questionnaire. The qualitative strand consisted of a one-on-one interview with 10 parents from the quantitative sample. Quantitative findings revealed that parents who assigned a light skin tone to their children engaged in more specific types of racial socialization than those who assigned a darker skin tone to their children. Analysis of qualitative interviews revealed parents’ unique messages based on assigned skin tones. Data from the two strands were integrated using a weaving approach that compared findings from both strands.

Keywords

skin tone racial socialization Black parents early childhood

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Anderson

R. E.

Stevenson

H. C.

(2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. The American Psychologist, 74(1), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000392

Anfara

V. A.

Brown

K. M.

Mangione

T. L.

(2002). Qualitative analysis on stage: Making the research process more public. Educational Researcher, 31(7), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x031007028

Bonilla-Silva

(2018). Racism without racist: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States (5th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

Caughy

M. O.

Nettles

S. M.

Lima

(2011). Profiles of racial socialization among African American parents: Correlates, context, and outcome. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(4), 491–502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9416-1

Cave

(2018, September 11). Serena Williams cartoon ‘not about race,’ artist says. Experts strongly disagree. The New York Times.

Creswell

J. W.

Plano Clark

V. L.

(2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Derlan

C. L.

Umaña-Taylor

A. J.

Updegraff

K. A.

Jahromi

L. B.

(2017). Longitudinal relations among Mexican-origin mothers’ cultural characteristics, cultural socialization, and 5-year-old children’s ethnic-racial identification. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2078–2091. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000386

Edwards

A. L.

(2014). A qualitative examination of the maternal racial socialization of African American preschool children . [Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Goldsmith

A. H.

Hamilton

Darity

Jr. (2006). Shades of discrimination: Skin tone and wages. American Economic Review, 96(2), 242–245. DOI:10.1257/000282806777212152.

10.

Hebl

M. R.

Williams

M. J.

Sunderman

J. M.

Kell

H. J.

Davies

P. G.

(2012). Selectively friending: Racial stereotypically and social rejection. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1329–1335. DOI:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.019.

11.

Herring

Haynes

(2017). Race, skin tone, and wealth inequality in America. In L Martin

Horton

H. D.

Herring

Keith

V. M.

Thomas

(Eds.), Color Struck (pp. 1–17). Brill Sense.

12.

Hughes

Rodriguez

Smith

E. P.

Johnson

D. J.

Stevenson

H. C.

Spicer

(2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747

13.

Hunter

Sabo

R. T.

McCarty

J. M.

Newland

A. M.

(2016). Colorism in the classroom: How skin tone stratifies African American and Latina/o students. Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice: Official Publication of the International Society of Oncology Pharmacy Practitioners, 22(1), 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078155214549617

14.

Jablonski

N. G.

(2012). Living color: The biological and social meaning of skin color. University of California Press.

15.

Keith

V. M.

Herring

(1991). Skin tone and stratification in the Black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97(3), 760–778.

16.

Landor

A. M.

(2017). Beyond Black and White but still in color: Preliminary findings of skin tone and marriage attitudes and outcomes among African American young adults. Color struck (pp. 37–53). Brill Sense.

17.

Landor

A. M.

Simons

L. G.

Simons

R. L.

Brody

G. H.

Bryant

Gibbons

F. X.

Granberg

E. M.

Melby

J. N.

(2013). Exploring the impact of skin tone on family dynamics and race-related outcomes. Journal of Family Psychology: JFP: Journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 27(5), 817–826. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033883

18.

Lesane-Brown

C. L.

Scottham

K. M.

Nguyen

H. X.

Sellers

R. M.

(2008). Parent-child racial socialization: A new measure for use with African American adolescents. Unpublished manuscript

19.

Lloyd

D. D.

(2022). African American mothers’ racial socialization practices with preschoolers: A mixed methods study. Family Relations, 71(5), 1859–1877. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12639

20.

Maddox

K. B.

Gray

S. A.

(2002). Cognitive representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the role of skin tone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2), 250–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202282010

21.

Mandara

Varner

Richman

(2010). Do African American mothers really “love” their sons and “raise” their daughters? Journal of Family Psychology: JFP: Journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 24(1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018072

22.

Monk

E. P.

(2014). Skin tone stratification among Black Americans, 2001-2003. Social Forces, 92(4), 1313–1337. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou007

23.

Plano Clark

V. L

Ivankova

N. V.

(2016). Mixed methods research: A guide to the field (3). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.

24.

Reece

R. L.

(2018). Genesis of U.S. colorism and skin tone stratification: Slavery, freedom, and Mulatto-Black occupational inequality in the late 19^th century. The Review of Black Political Economy, 45(1), 3–21. DOI:10.1177/0021934718803735.

25.

Slaughter-Acey

J. C.

Brown

T. N.

Keith

V. M.

Dailey

Misra

D. P.

(2020). A tale of two generations: Maternal skin color and adverse birth outcomes in Black/African American women. Social Science & Medicine, 265, 113552. DOI:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113552.

26.

Smith-Bynum

(2021, April 6-9). A theory of racial socialization in action: Black families and the power of observational methods [Invited Talk]. Society for Research in Child Development, Virtual.