Caring for one’s parents can be good or bad for mental health. Guided by theories suggesting that caregiving work brings both demands and benefits, we examine if mental health outcomes depend on variations in caregiving arrangements. Using waves 5–17 from the Household Income and Labor Dynamics in Australia Survey (16,802 respondents; 115,176 person-years), we divide men and women caregivers into four groups based on their responsibility (main vs. secondary caregiver) and the location of the care recipient (inside or outside the caregiver’s household). We also examine how caregivers’ experiences are moderated by the social support they have. On average, caregivers experience no change in mental health. However, women with low social support who become main caregivers for resident parents experience declines in mental health. Men with low social support who become main caregivers for non-resident parents experience improved mental health. These results suggest that caregiver outcomes reflect different caregiving arrangements.
AllisonP. D. (2002). Missing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2.
AllisonP. D. (2019). Asymmetric fixed-effects models for panel data. Socius, 5, 1-12.
3.
AngS.MalhotraR. (2018). Expressive social support buffers the impact of care-related work interruptions on caregivers’ depressive symptoms. Aging & Mental Health, 22(6), 755-763.
4.
AraiY.ZaritS. H.SugiuraM.WashioM. (2002). Patterns of outcome of caregiving for the impaired elderly: A longitudinal study in rural Japan. Aging & Mental Health, 6(1), 39-46.
BarbosaA.FigueiredoD.SousaL.DemainS. (2011). Coping with the caregiving role: Differences between primary and secondary caregivers of dependent elderly people. Aging & Mental Health, 15(4), 490-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2010.543660.
7.
BarnettA. E. (2015). Adult child caregiver health trajectories and the impact of multiple roles over time. Research on Aging, 37(3), 227-252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027514527834.
8.
BarnettR. C.HydeJ. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56(10), 781-796.
9.
BauerJ. M.Sousa-PozaA. (2015). Impacts of informal caregiving on caregiver employment, health, and family. Journal of Population Ageing, 8(3), 113-145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12062-015-9116-0.
10.
BrüderlJ.LudwigV. (2015). Fixed-effects panel regression. In BestH.WolfC. (Eds.), The Sage handbook of regression analysis and causal inference (pp. 327-357). Washington DC: Sage.
11.
CampbellJ.IkegamiN.GoriC.BarbabellaF.ChomikR.d’AmicoF.TheobaldH. (2015). How different countries allocate long-term care resources to older users: a comparative snapshot. In GoriC.FernandezJ.-L.WittenbergR. (Eds.), Long-term care reforms in OECD countries (pp. 47-76). Policy Press.
12.
CarbonneauH.CaronC.DesrosiersJ. (2010). Development of a conceptual framework of positive aspects of caregiving in dementia. Dementia, 9(3), 327-353.
13.
ClancyR. L.FisherG. G.DaigleK. L.HenleC. A.McCarthyJ.FruhaufC. A. (2019). Eldercare and work among informal caregivers: A multidisciplinary review and recommendations for future research. Journal of Business and Psychology, 35, 9-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-9612-3.
14.
CraigL.ChurchillB. (2018). Parenting stress and the use of formal and informal child care: Associations for fathers and mothers. Journal of Family Issues, 39(12), 3203-3224.
15.
Deloitte Access Economics. (2020). The value of informal care in 2020. Australia: Deloitte Access Economics.
16.
DePasqualeN.PolenickC. A.DavisK. D.MoenP.HammerL. B.AlmeidaD. M. (2017). The psychosocial implications of managing work and family caregiving roles: Gender differences among information technology professionals. Journal of Family Issues, 38(11), 1495-1519.
17.
EhrlichU.MöhringK.DrobničS. (2020). What comes after caring? The impact of family care on women’s employment. Journal of Family Issues, 41(9), 1387-1419. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x19880934.
18.
FlintE.BartleyM.SheltonN.SackerA. (2013). Do labour market status transitions predict changes in psychological well-being?Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 67(9), 796-802.
19.
Gonçalves-PereiraM.ZaritS. H.CardosoA. M.Alves da SilvaJ.PapoilaA. L.MateosR. (2020). A comparison of primary and secondary caregivers of persons with dementia. Psychology and aging, 35(1), 20-27.
20.
GottliebB. H.KellowayE. K.FraboniM. (1994). Aspects of eldercare that place employees at risk. The Gerontologist, 34(6), 815-821.
21.
GreenhausJ. H.PowellG. N. (2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 72-92.
22.
GrigoryevaA. (2017). Own gender, sibling’s gender, parent’s gender. American Sociological Review, 82(1), 116-146.
23.
HammerL. B.NealM. B. (2008). Working sandwiched-generation caregivers: Prevalence, characteristics, and outcomes. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 11(1), 93-112.
24.
HansenT.SlagsvoldB. (2015). Feeling the squeeze? The effects of combining work and informal caregiving on psychological well-being. European Journal of Ageing, 12(1), 51-60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-014-0315-y.
25.
HansenT.SlagsvoldB.IngebretsenR. (2013). The strains and gains of caregiving: An examination of the effects of providing personal care to a parent on a range of indicators of psychological well-being. Social Indicators Research, 114(2), 323-343.
26.
HerreraA. P.Mendez-LuckC. A.CristJ. D.SmithM. L.WarreR.OryM. G.MarkidesK. (2013). Psychosocial and cognitive health differences by caregiver status among older Mexican Americans. Community Mental Health Journal, 49(1), 61-72.
27.
HilbrechtM.LeroD. S.SchryerE.MockS. E.SmaleB. (2017). Understanding the association between time spent caregiving and well-being among employed adults: Testing a model of work-life fit and sense of community. Community, Work & Family, 20(2), 162-180.
28.
KellyE. L.MoenP.TranbyE. (2011). Changing workplaces to reduce work-family conflict. American Sociological Review, 76(2), 265-290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122411400056.
29.
KoernerS. S.KenyonD. B.ShiraiY. (2009). Caregiving for elder relatives: Which caregivers experience personal benefits/gains?Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 48(2), 238-245.
30.
KossekE. E.ThompsonR. J.LawsonK. M.BodnerT.PerriginoM. B.HammerL. B.BrayJ. W. (2019). Caring for the elderly at work and home: Can a randomized organizational intervention improve psychological health?Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(1), 36-54.
31.
LavelaS. L.AtherN. (2010). Psychological health in older adult spousal caregivers of older adults. Chronic Illness, 6(1), 67-80.
32.
LloydJ.PattersonT.MuersJ. (2016). The positive aspects of caregiving in dementia: A critical review of the qualitative literature. Dementia, 15(6), 1534-1561.
33.
MarinoV. R.BadanaA. N. S.HaleyW. E. (2020). Care demands and well-being of primary and secondary non-spousal caregivers of aging adults. Clinical gerontologist, 43(5), 558-571.
34.
MarksS. R. (1977). Multiple roles and role strain: Some notes on human energy, time and commitment. American Sociological Review, 42(6), 921-936.
35.
MarksN. F.LambertJ. D.ChoiH. (2002). Transitions to caregiving, gender, and psychological well-being: A prospective U.S. National study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(3), 657-667.
36.
MarksN. F.LambertJ. D.JunH.Jieun SongJ. (2008). Psychosocial moderators of the effects of transitioning into filial caregiving on mental and physical health. Research on Aging, 30(3), 358-389.
37.
Melbourne Institute. (2020). Frequently asked questions analyzing HILDA survey data. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne Institute.
38.
MerzE.-M.SchulzeH.-J.SchuengelC. (2010). Consequences of filial support for two generations: A narrative and quantitative review. Journal of Family Issues, 31(11), 1530-1554.
39.
MoormanS. M.MacdonaldC. (2013). Medically complex home care and caregiver strain. The Gerontologist, 53(3), 407-417.
40.
MuntanerC.NgE.VanroelenC.ChristS.EatonW. W. (2013). Social stratification, social closure, and social class as determinants of mental health disparities. In Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 205-227). New York, NY: Springer.
41.
National Alliance for Caregiving, & AARP. (2020). Caregiving in the U.S. Washington, D.C.: AARP.
42.
NguyenH. T.ConnellyL. B. (2014). The effect of unpaid caregiving intensity on labour force participation: Results from a multinomial endogenous treatment model. Social Science & Medicine, 100, 115-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.10.031.
43.
NORC (2014). Long term care in America: Expectations and realities. Chicago, IL: The Associated Press and NORC ChicagoIL.
44.
OECD. (2019). Health at a glance 2019: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing.
45.
OsbornR.MouldsD.SquiresD.DotyM. M.AndersonC. (2014). International survey of older adults finds shortcomings in access, coordination, and patient-centered care. Health Affairs, 33(12), 2247-2255.
46.
PagnanC. E.SeidelA.MacDermid WadsworthS. (2016). I just can’t fit it in! implications of the fit between work and family on health-promoting behaviors. Journal of Family Issues, 38, 1577-1603.
47.
PearlinL. I.MullanJ. T.SempleS. J.SkaffM. M. (1990). Caregiving and the stress process: An overview of concepts and their measures. The Gerontologist, 30(5), 583-594.
48.
PinquartM.SörensenS. (2006). Gender differences in caregiver stressors, social resources, and health: An updated meta-analysis. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(1), P33-P45.
49.
PrincipiA.LamuraG.SirollaC.MestheneosL.BieńB.BrownJ.DöhnerH. (2014). Work restrictions experienced by midlife family care-givers of older people: evidence from six European countries. Ageing and Society, 34(2), 209-231.
50.
PristavecT. (2019). The burden and benefits of caregiving: A latent class analysis. The Gerontologist, 59(6), 1078-1091.
51.
QuinnCTomsG (2019). Influence of positive aspects of dementia caregiving on caregivers’ well-being: A systematic review. The Gerontologist, 59(5), e584-e596.
52.
RosenfieldS.MouzonD. (2013). Gender and mental health. In Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 277-296). New York: Springer.
53.
RothD. L.FredmanL.HaleyW. E. (2015). Informal caregiving and its impact on health: A reappraisal from population-based studies. The Gerontologist, 55(2), 309-319. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnu177.
StewartL. M. (2013). Family care responsibilities and employment. Journal of Family Issues, 34(1), 113-138.
56.
StewartL.StutzH.LileW. (2018). The continuum of dependent family care: a theoretical explanation and model. Community, Work & Family, 21(5), 599-619. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2018.1530637.
57.
UmbersonD.ThomeerM. B.WilliamsK. (2013). Family status and mental health: Recent advances and future directions. In AneshenselC. S.PhelanJ. C.BiermanA. (Eds.), Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health (pp. 405-431). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
58.
WareJ. E. J.SnowK. K.KosinskiM. (2000). SF-36 health survey: Manual and interpretation guide. Lincoln, RI: Quality Metric Incorporated.
59.
WheatonB.YoungM.MontazerS.Stuart-LahmanK. (2013). Social stress in the twenty-first century. In Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 299-323). New York, NY: Springer.
60.
WilkinsR.LaßI.ButterworthP.Vera-ToscanoE. (2019). The household income and labour dynamics in Australia survey: Selected findings from waves 1–17. Retrieved from Melbourne InstituteApplied Economic & Social Research.
61.
YeandleS.BennettC.BucknerL.FryG.PriceC. (2007). Stages and transitions in the experience of caring. London: Carers UK.
62.
YuD. S. F.ChengS.-T.WangJ. (2018). Unravelling positive aspects of caregiving in dementia: An integrative review of research literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 79, 1-26.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
