This study examines gender differences in the work—family interface across six family life stages using a global sample of IBM employees in 79 countries (N = 41,813). Family life stage was constructed using the age of respondent and age of youngest child. Results revealed that having young children at home was the critical catalyst for gender differences in the work—family interface. The greatest gender differences were found in the central stages of life when children require more temporal and economic resources from their parents. When life stage was not considered, the first and last stages tended to offset each other, concealing major gender differences during the central stages of family life. These findings signify that life stage is an important concept to consider in research related to gender and the work— family interface. Implications to the development of work policies attentive to shifts in work—family linkages during the life course are discussed.
Aryee, S. ( 1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict among married professional women: Evidence from Singapore. Human Relations, 45, 813-837.
2.
Aryee, S., Fields, D., & Luk, V. ( 1999). A cross-cultural test of a model of the workfamily interface . Journal of Management, 25, 491-511.
3.
Baltes, B., & Young, L.M. ( 2007). Aging and work/family issues. In G. Adams & K. Shultz (Eds.), Aging and work in the 21st century (pp. 7-23). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4.
Barnes-Farrell, J.L., & Matthews, R. ( 2007). Age and work attitudes. In G. Adams & K. Shultz (Eds.), Aging and work in the 21st century (pp. 7-23). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
5.
Barnett, R.C., & Gareis, K.C. ( 2006). Role theory perspectives on work and family. In M. Pitt-Catsouphes, E. E. Kossek, & S. Sweet (Eds.), The work and family handbook: Multi-disciplinary perspectives and approaches (pp. 209-221). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
Barrah, J.L., Shultz, K., Baltes, B., & Stoltz, H.E. ( 2004). Men’s and women’s eldercare-based work-family conflict: Antecedents and work-related outcomes. Fathering , 2, 305-330.
7.
Bielby, W.T., & Bielby, D.D. ( 1992). I will follow him: Family ties, gender-role beliefs, and reluctance to relocate for a better job. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 124-1267.
8.
Bond, E.M., Galinsky, E., Pitt-Catsouphes, M., & Smyer, M.A. ( 2005, November). The diverse employment experience of older men and women in the workforce. Boston, MA: Families and Work Institute, the Center on Aging and Work at Boston College .
9.
Bond, J.T., Thompson, C., Galinsky, E., & Prottas, D. ( 2002). Highlights of the national study of the changing workforce . New York: Families and Work Institute .
10.
Cohen, J. ( 1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
11.
Cowan, C.P., & Cowan, P.A. ( 2000). When partners become parents. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
12.
Crouter, A.C. ( 1984). Spillover from family to work: The neglected side of the workfamily interface. Human Relations, 37, 425-442.
13.
Dilworth, J.E.L. ( 2004). Predictors of negative spillover from family to work . Journal of Family Issues, 25, 241-261.
14.
Duxbury, L.E., & Higgins, C.A. ( 1991). Gender differences in work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 60-74.
15.
Elder, G.H., Jr. ( 1996). The life course paradigm: Social change and individual development. In G. J. Elder Jr., P. Moen, & K. Luscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 101-139). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
16.
Entmacher, J. ( 1999). Testimony before the Subcommittee on Social Security of the House Committee on Ways and Means: Hearing on the impacts of the current social security’s protections for women. Washington, DC: National Women’s Law Center.
17.
Frone, M.R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M.L. ( 1992). Prevalence of work-family conflict: Are work and family boundaries asymmetrically permeable? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 723-729.
18.
Greenhaus, J.H., & Beutell, N.J. ( 1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88.
19.
Grzywacz, J.G., Almeida, D.M., & McDonald, D.A. (2002). Work-family spillover and daily reports of work and family stress in the adult labor force. Family Relations, 51, 28-36.
20.
Gutek, B.A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. ( 1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 560-568.
21.
Higgins, C., Duxbury, L., & Lee, C. ( 1994). Impact of life-cycle stage and gender on the ability to balance work and family responsibilities. Family Relations , 43, 144-150.
22.
Hill, E.J., Jackson, A.D., & Martinengo, G. (2006). Twenty years of work and family at International Business Machines Corporation. American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 1165-1183.
23.
Hill, E.J., Jacob, J.I., Shannon, L.L., Brennan, R.T., Blanchard, V.L., & Martinengo, G. (2008). Exploring the relationship of workplace flexibility, gender, and life stage to family-to-work conflict, and stress and burnout. Community, Work, and Family, 11, 165-181.
24.
Hill, E.J., Martinson, V., & Ferris, M. ( 2004). New-concept part-time employment as a work-family adaptive strategy for women professionals with small children. Family Relations, 53, 282-292.
25.
Hill, E.J., Yang, C., Hawkins, A.J., & Ferris, M. ( 2004). A cross-cultural test of the workfamily interface in 48 countries. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 1300-1316.
26.
Hinze, S.W. ( 2000). Inside medical marriages: The effect of gender on income . Work and Occupations, 27, 464-499.
27.
Hundley, G. ( 2001). Domestic division of labor and self/organizationally employed differences in job attitudes and earnings. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 22, 121-139.
28.
Jacob, J.I., Bond, J.T., Galinsky, E., & Hill, E.J. ( 2008). Flexibility: A critical ingredient in creating an effective workplace. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 11, 141-161.
29.
Jung, C.G. ( 1971). The portable Jung. New York, Viking.
30.
Kaufman, G., & Uhlenberg, P. ( 2000). The influence of parenthood on the work effort of married men and women. Social Forces, 78, 931-949.
31.
Kline, R.B. ( 1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling . New York: Guilford.
32.
Lundberg, S., & Rose, E. ( 1999). Parenthood and the earnings of married men and women . Labour Economics, 7, 689-710.
33.
Marshall, N.L., & Barnett, R.C. ( 1993). Work-family strains and gains among two-earner couples . Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 64-78.
34.
Mattessich, P., & Hill, R. ( 1987). Life cycle and family development. In M. B. Sussman & S. K. Steinbmetz (Eds.), Handbook of marriage and the family (pp. 437-465). New York: Plenum.
35.
McElwain, A.K., Korabik, K., & Rosin, H.M. ( 2005). An examination of gender differences in work-family conflict . Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 37, 283-298.
36.
Mennino, S.F., & Brayfield, A. ( 2002). Job-family trade-offs: The multidimensional effect of gender. Work and Occupations, 29, 226-256.
37.
Mennino, S.F., Rubin, B.A., & Brayfield, A. ( 2005). Home-to-job and job-to-home spillover: The impact of company policies and workplace culture. Sociological Quarterly , 46, 107-135.
38.
Moen, P., Erickson, W., Agarwal, M., Fields, V., & Todd, L. ( 2000). The Cornell Retirement and Wellbeing Study. Ithaca, NY: Bronfenbrenner Life Course Center at Cornell University.
39.
Moen, P., & Roehling, P. ( 2005). The career mystique: Cracks in the American dream. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.
40.
Moen, P., & Sweet, S. ( 2004). From "work-family" to "flexible careers": A life course reframing. Community, Work, and Family, 7, 209-226.
41.
Nock, S. ( 1998). Marriage in men’s lives. New York: Oxford University Press.
42.
Nomaguchi, K.M., & Milkie, M.A. ( 2003). Costs and rewards of children: The effects of becoming a parent on adults’ lives. Journal of Marriage and Family , 65, 356-374.
43.
Nomaguchi, K.M., Milkie, M.A., & Bianchi, S.M. ( 2005). Time strains and psychological well-being: Do dual-earner mothers and fathers differ? Journal of Family Issues, 26, 756-792.
44.
Orrange, R. ( 1999). Work, family and meaning in life: Thoughts of professionals in transitioning to work. New York, NY: Cornell University Press.
45.
Pitt-Catsouphes, M., & Smyer, M.A. ( 2006). One size doesn’t fit all: Workplace flexibility . Boston, MA: Families and Work Institute, the Center on Aging and Work at Boston College. Retrieved from www.bc.edu/agingandwork
46.
Roehling, P.V., Moen, P., & Batt, R. ( 2003). When work spills over into the home and home spills over into work. In P. Moen (Ed.), It’s about time: Couples and careers (pp. 101-121). Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press.
47.
Sanchez, L., & Thomson, E. ( 1997). Becoming mothers and fathers: Parenthood, gender and the division of Labor. Gender & Society, 11, 747-772.
48.
Simon-Rusinowitz, L., Krach, C.A., Marks, L.N., Piktialis, D., & Wilson, L.B. ( 1996). Grandparents in the workplace: The effects of economic and labor trends. Generations, 20, 41-44.
49.
Staudinger, U.M., & Bluck, S. ( 2001). A view on midlife development from life-span theory. In M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook of midlife development (pp. 447-486). New York: John Wiley.
50.
Sterns, H.L., & Huyck, M.H. ( 2001). The role of work in midlife. In M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook of midlife development (pp. 447-486). New York: John Wiley.
51.
Treas, J., & Widmer, E.D. ( 2000). Married women’s employment over the life course: Attitudes in cross-national perspective. Social Forces, 78, 1409-1436.
