Based on a prospective longitudinal panel data set that was collected at three developmental stages—early adolescence, young adulthood, and middle adulthood— this study investigates marital satisfaction and educational attainment as mediating mechanisms as well as gender's moderating effect for the intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting (N = 1,560). The results show that perceived satisfying experiences with parents during early adolescence are positively related to marital satisfaction and educational attainment in young adulthood, which, in turn, are positively related to individuals' utilization of constructive parenting in middle adulthood. The two mediating mechanisms account for most of the direct effect of the intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting. Furthermore, the mediating effect of marital relationship is stronger for current fathers than for mothers because of a stronger association between marital satisfaction and constructive parenting for men. The implications are discussed.
Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1982). Attachment: Retrospect and prospect. In C. M. Parkes & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), The place of attachment in human behavior (pp. 3-30). New York: Basic Books.
2.
Alexandrov, E.O., Cowan, P.A., & Cowan, C.P. (2005). Couple attachment and the quality of marital relationships: Method and concept in the validation of the new couple attachment interview and coding system. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 123-152.
3.
Armsden, G., & Greenberg, M.T. (1987). The Inventory of Parent Peer Attachment: Individual differences and their relation to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 16, 427-454.
4.
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37, 887-907.
5.
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model . Child Development, 55, 83-96.
6.
Belsky, J. (1990). Parental and nonparental child care and children's socioemotional development: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52, 885-903.
7.
Belsky, J., & Jaffee, S.R. (2006). In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 38-85). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
8.
Belsky, J., Sligo, J., Jaffee, S.R., Woodward, L., & Silva, P.A. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of warm-sensitive-stimulating parenting: A prospective study of mothers and fathers of 3-year-olds. Child Development, 76, 384-396.
9.
Belsky, J., Youngblade, L., Rovine, M., & Volling, B. (1991). Patterns of marital change and parent-child interaction . Journal of Marriage and Family, 53, 487-498.
10.
Bentler, P.M. (1989). EQS Structural Equations Program manual. Los Angeles: BMDP Statistical Software.
11.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)
12.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base. London: Routledge .
13.
Brody, G.H., Pellegrini, A.D., & Sigel, I.E. (1986). Marital quality and mother-child and father-child interactions with school-aged children. Developmental Psychology , 22, 291-296.
14.
Burgess, R.L., & Youngblade, L.M. (1988). Social incompetence and the intergenerational transmission of abusive parental practices. In G. T. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatrick, & M. A. Straus (Eds.), Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research (pp. 38-60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
15.
Byrne, B.M., Shavelson R.J., & Muthen, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 456-466.
16.
Capaldi, D., Pears, K., Patterson, G., & Owen, L. (2003). Continuity of parenting practices across generations in an at-risk sample: A prospective comparison of direct and mediated associations . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 127-142.
17.
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T.E., Wright, B.R.E., & Silva, P.A. (1998). Early failure in the labor market: Childhood and adolescent predictors of unemployment in the transition to adulthood. American Sociological Review, 63, 424-451.
18.
Chassin, L., Presson, C.C., Todd, M., Rose, J.S., & Sherman, S.J. (1998). Maternal socialization of adolescent smoking: The intergenerational transmission of parenting and smoking. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1189-1201.
19.
Chen, Z., & Kaplan, H.B. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 17-31.
20.
Cohn, D.A., Silver, D.H., Cowan, C.P., Cowan, P.A., & Pearson, J. (1992). Working models of childhood attachment and couple relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 13, 432-449.
21.
Collins, N.L., & Read, S.J. (1994). Cognitive representations of attachment: The structure and function of working models. In K. Bartholomew & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 5, pp. 53-90). Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley.
22.
Conger, R., Nell, T., Kim, K., & Scaramella, L. (2003). Angry and aggressive behavior across three generations: A prospective, longitudinal study of parents and children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 143-160.
23.
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model . Psychological Bulletin, 113, 487-496.
24.
Doherty, W., Kouneski, E., & Erickson, M. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and a conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and Family, 60, 277-292.
25.
Dornbusch, S.M., Ritter, P.L., Leiderman, P.H., Roberts, D.F., & Fraleigh, M.J. (1987). The relation of parenting style to adolescent performance. Child Development, 58, 1244-1257.
26.
Easterbrooks, M.A., & Emde, R.N. (1988). Marital and parent-child relationships: The role of affect in the family system. In R. A. Hinde & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutual influence (pp. 83-103). Oxford , UK: Clarendon.
27.
Ehrensaft, D. (1983). When women and men mother. In J. Trebilcot (Ed.), Mothering: Essays in feminist theory (pp. 41-61). Totowa, NJ: Rowan and Allanheld.
28.
Elder, G.H. (1998). The life course and human development. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (pp. 939-991). New York: Wiley.
29.
Elder, G.H., Jr., Caspi, A., & Downey, G. (1986). Problem behavior and family relationships: Life-course and intergenerational themes. In A. M. Sorenses , F. E. Weiner, & L. R. Sherrod (Eds.), Human development and the life course: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 293-342). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
30.
Engfer, A. (1988). The interrelatedness of marriage and the mother-child relationship. In R. A. Hinde & J. S. Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutual influences (pp. 104-118). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
31.
Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent-child relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin , 118, 108-132.
32.
Feeney, J. (2002). Attachment, marital interaction, and relationship satisfaction: A diary study. Personal Relationships, 9, 39-55.
Feeney, J.A. (1999). Adult romantic attachment and couple relationships . In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 355-377). New York: Guilford.
35.
Furstenberg, F.F., Jr. , & Harris, K.M. (1992). The disappearing American father? Divorce and the waning significance of biological parenthood. In S. J. South & S. E. Tolnay (Eds.), The changing American family: Sociological and demographic perspectives (pp. 197-223). Boulder, CO: Westview.
36.
Glasgow, K.L., Dornbusch, S.M., & Troyer, L. (1997). Parenting styles, adolescents' attributions, and educational outcomes in nine heterogeneous high schools. Child Development, 68, 507-529.
37.
Goldberg, W., & Easterbrooks, M. (1984). Role of marital quality in toddler development. Developmental Psychology, 20, 504-514.
38.
Harman, D., & Brim, O.G. (1980). Learning to be parents. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
39.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.
40.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley : University of California Press.
Kaplan, H.B. (1980). Deviant behavior in defense of self. New York: Academic Press.
43.
Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and parenting behavior . A meta-analytic review. Family Relations, 49, 25-44.
44.
Lamb, M.E., Pleck, J.H., Charnov, E.L., & Levine, J.A. (1985). Paternal behavior in humans. American Zoologist, 25, 883-894.
45.
Lamborn, S.D., Mounts, N.S., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, D.M. (1991). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 62, 1049-1065.
46.
LaRossa, R. (1986). Becoming a parent. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
47.
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1/2, Serial No. 209).
48.
Meyer, H.J. (1988). Marital and mother-child relationships: Developmental history, parental personality, and child difficultness. In R. A. Hinde & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutual influences (pp. 119-139). Oxford, UK: Clarendon .
49.
Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
50.
Minuchin, S., Rosman, B.L., & Baker, L. (1978). Psychosomatic families: Anorexia nervosa in context . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
51.
Pleck, J.H.( 1997). Paternal involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences . In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (3rd ed., pp. 66-103). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
52.
Putallaz, M., Costanzo, P.R., Grimes, C.L., & Sherman, D.M. (1998). Intergenerational continuities and their influences on children's social development. Social Development, 7, 389-427.
53.
Rogers, S.J., & White, L.K. (1998). Satisfaction with parenting: The role of marital happiness, family structure, and parents' gender. Journal of Marriage and Family, 60, 293-308.
54.
Senchak, M., & Leonard, K.E. (1992). Attachment styles and marital adjustment among newlywed couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 9, 51-64.
55.
Shanahan, M.J. (2000). Pathways to adulthood in changing societies: Variability and mechanisms in life course perspective. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 667-692.
56.
Simons, R.L., & Johnson, C. (1996). The impact of marital and social network support on quality of parenting. In G. R. Pierce , B. R. Sarason, & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Handbook of social support and the family (pp. 269-287). New York: Plenum .
57.
Simons, R.L., Beaman, J., Conger, R.D., & Chao, W. (1993). Childhood experience, conceptions of parenting, and attitudes of spouse as determinants of parental behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family, 55, 91-106.
58.
Simons, R.L., Whitbeck, L.B., Conger, R.D., & Wu, C. (1991). Intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting . Developmental Psychology, 27, 159-171.
59.
Simons, R.L., Wu, C., Johnson, C., & Conger, R.D. (1995). A test of various perspectives on the intergenerational transmission of domestic violence. Criminology, 33, 141-172.
60.
Smith, C., & Farrington, D. (2004). Continuities in antisocial behaviour and parenting across three generations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 230-247.
61.
Spera, C. (2005). A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 125-146.
62.
Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S.D., Dornbusch, S.M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed . Child Development, 63, 1266-1281.
63.
Steinmetz, S.K. (1987). Family violence. In M. B. Sussman & S. K. Steinmetz (Eds.), Handbook of marriage and the family (pp. 725-765). New York: Plenum.
64.
Straus, M.A., Gelles, R.J., & Steinmetz, S.K. (1980). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
65.
Thornberry, T., Freeman-Gallant, A., Lizotte, A., Krohn, M., & Smith, C. (2003). Linked lives: The intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 31, 171-184.
66.
Umberson, D. (1989). Relationships with children: Explaining parents' psychological well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 51, 999-1012.
67.
van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1992). Intergenerational transmission of parenting: A review of studies in nonclinical populations. Developmental Review, 12, 76-99.
68.
Vogel, E.F., & Bell, N.W. (1960). The emotionally disturbed child as a family scapegoat . In N. W. Bell & E. F. Vogel (Eds.), A modern introduction to the family (pp. 382-397). New York: Free Press.
69.
Wheaton, B., & Gotlib I.H. (1997). Trajectories and turning points over the life course: Concepts and themes. In I. H. Gotlib & B. Wheaton (Eds.), Stress and adversity over the life course: Trajectories and turning points (pp. 1-25). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
70.
Wille, D.E. (1995). The 1990s: Gender differences in parenting roles . Sex Roles, 33, 803-817.
71.
Wong, E.H., Wiest, D.J., & Cusick, L.B. (2002). Perceptions of autonomy support, parent attachment, competence and self-worth as predictors of motivational orientation and academic achievement: An examination of sixth-and-ninth-grade regular education students . Adolescence, 37, 255-266.
