Fathers in dual-earner families (N = 447) participated in three studies. The first two studies were designed to devise a brief measure of stress experienced by employed men in dual-earner families. The resulting Workplace/Family Stress Scale was found to be a reliable and valid measure of this construct. An ecological systems framework was utilized for study design and analyses in the third study. This study explored contributions from various system levels to the work/family stress dynamic. Results indicated that all system levels examined (the individual, the family microsystem, and the workplace microsystem) contributed to experienced stress, with the greatest contribution coming from the family microsystem. Implications of these findings for fathers involved in multiple roles and for their families are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adler, J. (1996, June 17). Building a better dad. Newsweek, 58-61, 63-64.
2.
Barnett, R. C. , Marshall, N. L., & Pleck, J. H. (1992). Men's multiple roles and their relationship to men's psychological distress. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 358-367.
3.
Baruch, G. K. , & Barnett, R. C. (1986). Consequences of fathers' participation in family work: Parent's role strain and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 983-992.
4.
Benin, M. H. , & Agnostinelli, J. (1988). Husbands' and wives' satisfaction with the division of labor. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 349-361.
5.
Berry, J. O. , & Jones, W. H. (1995). The Parental Stress Scale: Initial psychometric evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12, 463-472.
6.
Biernat, M. , & Wortman, C. B., (1991). Sharing of home responsibilities between professionally employed women and their husbands. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 844-860.
7.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8.
Bronfenbrenner, U. , & Crouter, A. C. (1984). Work and family through time and space. In S. B. Kamerman & C. D. Hayes (Eds.), Families that work: Children in a changing world (pp. 39-83). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
9.
Cohen, S. , Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385-396.
10.
Cohen, T. F. (1993). What do fathers provide? Reconsidering the economic and nurturant dimensions of men as parents. In J. Hood (Ed.), Men, work, and family (pp. 1-22). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
11.
Cowan, C. P. , Cowan, P. A., Heming, G., Garrett, E., Coysh, W. S., Curtis-Boles, H., & Boles, A. J. (1985). Transitions to parenthood: His, hers, and theirs. Journal of Family Issues, 6, 451-481.
12.
Crouter, A. C. , Perry-Jenkins, M., Huston, T. L., & McHale, S. M. (1987). Processes underlying father involvement in dual-earner and single-earner families. Developmental Psychology, 23, 431-440.
13.
Deater-Deckard, K. , & Scarr, S. (1996). Parenting stress among dual-earner mothers and fathers: Are there gender differences?Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 45-59.
14.
Fernandez, J. P. (1986). Child care and corporate productivity: Resolving family/work conflicts. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
15.
Fernandez, J. P. (1990). The politics and reality of family care in corporate America. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
16.
Galinsky, E. , Bond, J. T., & Friedman, D. E., (1993). Highlights: The national study of the changing workforce. New York: Families and Work Institute.
17.
Galinsky, E. , & Stein, P. J. (1990). The impact of human resource policies on employees. Journal of Family Issues, 11, 368-383.
18.
Garbarino, J. , & Abramowitz, R. H. (1992). The ecology of human development. In J. Garbarino (Ed)., Children and families in the social environment (2nd ed., pp. 11-33). New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
19.
Gilbert, L. A. (1993). Two careers/one family. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
20.
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the big-five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 26-42.
21.
Griswold, R. L. (1993). Fatherhood in America: A history. New York: Basic Books.
22.
Guelzow, M. G. , Bird, G. W., & Koball, E. H. (1991). An exploratory path analysis of the stress process for dual-career men and women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 151-164.
23.
Hall, D. T. (1990). Promoting work/family balance: An organizational-change approach. Organizational Dynamics, 18, 4-18.
24.
Hawkins, A. J. , Christiansen, S. L., Sargent, K. P., & Hill, E. J. (1993). Rethinking fathers' involvement in child care. Journal of Family Issues, 14, 531-549.
25.
Hetherington, E. M. , Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1976). Divorced fathers. Family Coordinator, 25, 417-428.
26.
Hochschild, A. (1989). The second shift: Inside the two-job marriage. New York: Viking.
27.
Hochschild, A. (1992, November). Beyond the second shift: Denying needs at home or contesting rules at work? Paper presented at the annual conference of the National Council on Family Relations, Orlando, FL.
28.
Hyde, J. S. , Essex, M. J., & Horton, F. (1993). Fathers and parental leave: Attitudes and experiences. Journal of Family Issues, 14, 616-641.
29.
Kessler, R. C. , & McRae, J. A. (1982). The effect of wives' employment on the mental health of married men and women. American Sociological Review, 47, 216-226.
30.
LaRossa, R. (1988). Fatherhood and social change. Family Relations, 37, 451-457.
31.
Lechner, V. M. , & Creedon, M. A. (1994). Managing work and family life. New York: Springer.
32.
Leslie, L. A. , Anderson, E. A., & Branson, M. P. (1991). Responsibility for children: The role of gender and employment. Journal of Family Issues, 12, 197-210.
33.
Marsiglio, W. (1993). Contemporary scholarship on fatherhood: Culture, identity, and conduct. Journal of Family Issues, 14, 484-509.
34.
Menaghan, E. (1991). Work experiences and family interaction processes: The long reach of the job?Annual Review of Sociology, 17, 419-444.
35.
Meyer, J. A. , & Berry, J. O. (1995, May). Development and validation of a measure of workplace flexibility. Poster session presented at the annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL.
36.
Pleck, J. H. (1977). The work-family role system. Social Problems, 24, 417-427.
37.
Pleck, J. H. (1984, June). The workplace: A new focus for fatherhood activists. Nurturing News, 2, 10-11.
38.
Pleck, J. H. (1985). Working wives, working husbands. New York: Sage.
39.
Pleck, J. H. (1988). Fathers and infant care leave. In E. F. Zigler & M. Frank (Eds.), The parental leave crisis (pp. 177-191). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
40.
Pleck, J. H. (1993). Are “family supportive” employer policies relevant to men? In J. Hood (Ed.), Men, work, and family (pp. 217-237). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
41.
Rosen, R. (1991). The healthy company. Los Angeles: Jeremy Tarcher.
42.
Ross, C. E. , & Mirowsky, J. (1988). Child care and emotional adjustment to wives' employment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29, 127-138.
43.
Scarr, S. , Phillips, D., & McCartney, K. (1989). Working mothers and their families. American Psychologist, 44, 1402-1409.
44.
Silverstein, L. B. , & Levant, R. F. (1996, Spring). Children need fathers not patriarchs: An editorial comment. Family Psychologist, pp. 18-19.
45.
Voydanoff, P. (1993). Work and family relationships. In T. Brubaker (Ed.), Family Relations (pp. 98-111). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
46.
Zedeck. S. , & Mosier, K. L. (1990). Work in the family and employing organization. American Psychologist, 45, 240-251.
