While such concepts as "belief systems" and "levels of conceptualization" have played a central role in research on "issue voting" and other important questions, political scientists have paid relatively little attention to the processes by which human organisms process the signs and symbols they encounter in political (or in survey interview) situations, or to how people selectively attend to those stimuli. The research reported here takes from cognitive psychology and information processing the concept of a "schema" which organizes and structures those stimuli in varying ways and to varying degrees. Utilizing various measures of stimulus recall and recognition, it compares the reaction to political and non-political stimuli of persons putatively possessing a well-developed political schema ("politicos") and those lacking such a schema ("apoliticals"). The results suggest that the concept offers a promising approach for research on problems of political perception and response.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abelson, R.P. (1975) "Concepts for representing mundane reality in plans ," in D. G. Bobrow and A. Collins (eds.) Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science. New York: Academic Press.
2.
——— (1972) "Self-perception theory," in L. Berkowitz (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press.
3.
Adams, J., H.T. Prince, R.F. Priest, and R.W. Rice (1980) "Personality characteristics of the male and female leaders at the U.S. military academy." J. of Political and MilitarySociology8: 99-105.
4.
Alwin, D.F. (1977) "Making errors in surveys: an overview." Sociological Methods and Research6: 131-150.
5.
Anderson, J.R. and G.H. Bower (1973) Human Assertive Memory. Washington : V. H. Winston.
6.
Azar, E. and T. Sloan (1975) Dimensions of Interactions: A Source Book for the Study of the Behavior of 31 Nations from 1948 through 1973. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
7.
Baer, D. (1980) "Disentangling gender differences: an inquiry into biological and learning based explanations." Presented at the annual meetings of theMidwest Political Science Association, Chicago, April.
8.
Bakan, D. (1966) The Duality of Human Existence. Chicago: Rand McNally.
9.
Baker, S.W. (1980) "Biological influences on human sex and gender ." Signs: J. of Women in Culture and Society6 (Autumn): 80-96.
10.
Baloff, N. (1971) "Extensions of the learning curve—some empirical results." Operations Research Q.22: 329-340.
11.
-- and S. BECKER (1968) "A model of group problem solving tasks."Organizational Behavior and Human Performance3: 217-238.
12.
——— (1966) "Startups in machine-intensive production systems ." J. of Industrial Engineering17: 25-32.
13.
Barash, D. (1977) Sociobiology and Behavior. New York: Elsevier.
14.
Barkow, J.H. (n.d.) "A preliminary ethnographic sketch of the Migili (Koro) of Nigeria's plateau state."
15.
Barner-Barry, C. (1980) "The structure of young children's authority relationships." Power Relationships: An Ethological Perspective on Human Dominance and Submission . New York: Garland Press.
16.
——— (1978) "The utility of attention structure theory and the problem of human diversity." Presented at IPSA, Moscow, August.
17.
Bartlett, F. (1932) Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
18.
Beckman, L.J. (1978) "The relative rewards and costs of parenthood and employment for employed women." Psychology of Women Q.2 (Spring): 215-234.
19.
Bem, D.J. (1967) "Self-perception: an alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena." Psych. Rev.74: 183-200.
20.
Bem, S.L. (1979) "The theory and measurement of androgyny: a reply ..." J. of Personality and Social Psychology37 (June): 1047-1054.
21.
——— (1974) "The measurement of psychological androgyny." J. of Consulting Clinical Psychology42 (April): 155-162.
22.
Berman, P.W. (1980)"Are women more responsive than men to the young? A review of developmental and situational variables." Psych. Bull.88: 668-695.
23.
Bernard, J. (1964) Academic Women. University Park : Pennsylvania State Univ. Press.
24.
Bers, T.H. (1978) "Local political elites: men and women on boards of education." Western Pol. Q.31 (September): 381-391.
25.
Birdsell, N. (1976) "Review essay: women and population studies." SignsI (Spring): 699-712.
26.
Bishop, G.F. and R.W. Olendick (1978) "Change in the structure of American political attitudes: the nagging question of question wording." Amer. J. of Political Science22: 250-267.
27.
——— and A.J. Tuchfarber (1978) "Effects of question wording and format on political attitude consistency." Public Opinion Q.42: 81-91.
28.
Blake, J. (1979) "Is zero preferred? American attitudes toward childlessness in the 1970s." J. of Marriage and the Family41 (May): 245-257.
29.
Bobrow, D.G. and D.A. Norman (1975) "Some principles of memory schemata," in D. G. Bobrow and A. Collins (eds.) Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science. New York: Academic Press .
30.
Boulding, K. (1970) A Primer on Social Dynamics: History and Development . New York: The Free Press.
31.
Breines, W., M. Cerullo, and J. Stacey (1978) "Social biology, family studies, and antifeminist backlash." Feminist Studies4 (February): 43-67.
32.
Brenner, H., H.H. Branscomb, and G.E. Schwartz (1979) "Psychology stress evaluator: two tests of a vocal measure." Psychophysiology16: 351-357.
33.
Bunnell, B.N. and M.N. Perkins (1980) "Performance correlates of social behavior and organization: social rank and complex problem solving in crab-eating macaques (M. fasciculaus)." Primates21: 515-523.
34.
Bush, R.R. (1960) "A survey of mathematical learning theory," in R. Duncan Luce (ed.) Development in Mathematical Psychology, Part II. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press: 125-170.
35.
Campbell, A., P.E. Converse, W.E. Miller, and D.E. Stokes (1960) The American Voter. New York : John Wiley and Sons.
36.
Cannell, C.F. and R.L. Kahn (1968) "Interviewing," in G. Lindsay and E. Aronson (eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
37.
Cantor, N. and W. Mischel (1980) "Prototypes in person perception," in L. Berkowitz (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 12. New York: Academic Press.
38.
Cantril, H. (1944) Gauging Public Opinion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
39.
Castle, C.S. (1913) Statistical Study of Eminent Women. Archives of Psychology No. 27, August 1913. Columbia Contributions to Philosophy and Psychology , Vol. 221. New York: The Science Press.
40.
Chafe, W.H. (1972) The American Woman. New York : Oxford Univ. Press.
41.
Chance, M.R.A. and C. Jolly (1970) Social Groups of Monkeys, Apes and Men. New York: Dutton.
42.
Citrin, J. (1974) "Comment: the political relevance of trust in government ." Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.68: 97-98.
43.
Clark, L.D. and P.E. Gay (1978) "Behavioral correlates of social dominance." Biological Psychiat.12: 445-454.
44.
Clarke, H.D. and A. Kornberg (1979) "Moving up the escalator: women party officials in the U.S. and Canada." J. of Politics41 (May): 442-477.
45.
Cofer, C.N. (1975) The Structure of Human Memory. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
46.
Collins, A.M. and M.R. Quillian (1969) "Retrieval time from semantic memory." J. of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior8: 240-247.
47.
Conover, P.J. and S. Feldman (1980) "Liberal-Conservative self-identifications: their origins and meanings." Presented at the annual meetings of theMidwest Political Science Association, Chicago, April.
48.
Constantini, E. and K.H. Craik (1972) "Women as politicians: the background, political role, and personality of female party leaders." J. of Social Issues28: 217-236.
49.
Converse, P.E. (1970) "Attitudes and non-attitudes: continuation of a dialogue," in E. R. Tufte (ed.) The Quantitative Analysis of Social Problems. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
50.
——— (1964a) "New dimensions of meaning for cross-section sample surveys." Int. Social Science J.16: 19-34.
51.
——— (1964b) "The nature of belief systems in mass publics ," in D. Apter (ed.) Ideology and Discontent. New York: Free Press .
52.
Cook, B.B. (1978) "Women judges: the end of tokenism," in W. L. Hepperle and L. Crites (eds.) Women in the Courts. Williamsburg, VA: National Center for State Courts.
Craik, F.D.M. and R.S. Lockhart (1972) "Levels of processing: a framework for memory research ." J. of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior11: 671-684.
55.
Cutright, P. (1963) "National political development," in N. Polsby et al. (eds.) Politics and Social Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
56.
Dahl, R. (1976) Modern Political Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
57.
Davies, J.C. (1980) "Biological perspectives on human conflict," in T. R. Gurr (ed.) Handbook of Political Conflict. New York: Free Press.
58.
Diamond, I. (1977) Sex Roles in the State House. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
59.
Dunn, E.S. (1971) Economic and Social Development. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.
60.
Duverger, M. (1955) The Political Role of Women. Paris: UNESCO.
61.
Easton, D. (1975) "A reassessment of the concept of political support ." British J. of Political Science5: 435-457.
62.
Edelman, M. (1977) Political Language: Words that Succeed and Policies that Fail. New York: Academic Press .
63.
Eisenberg, J.F., N.A. Muckenhirn, and R. Rudran (1972) "The relationship between ecology and social structure in primates." Science176: 863-874.
64.
Elshtain, J.B. (1974) "Moral woman and immoral man: a consideration of the public-private split and its political ramifications." Politics and Society4: 453-473.
65.
Epstein, C.F. (1971) Woman's Place: Options and Limits in Professional Careers. Univ. of California Press.
66.
Erikson, R.S. and N.R. Luttbeg (1973) American Public Opinion: Its Origins, Content and Impact. New York: John Wiley.
67.
Essock-Vitale, S.M. and M. McGuire (1980) "Predictions derived from the theories of kin selection and reciprocation assessed by anthropological data." Ethology and Sociobiology1: 233-243.
68.
Fairbanks, L.A. (1980) "Relationships among adult females in captive vervet monkeys: testing a model of rank-related attractiveness." Animal Behavior: 853-859.
69.
——— and M.T. McGuire (1979) "Inhibition of control role behaviors in captive vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus)." Behavioral Processes4: 145-153.
70.
Fairbanks, L.A. and N. Page (1978) "Social roles in captive vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus)." Behavioral Processes3: 335-352.
71.
Fairbanks, L.A., S.R. Cole, R. Sbordone, F.M. Silvers, and J. Akers (1977) "An ethological study of four psychiatric wards ." Int. J. Psychiat. Res.13: 193-209.
72.
Field, J.O. and R. Anderson (1969) "Ideology in the public's conceptualization of the 1964 election." Public Opinion Q.33: 380-398.
73.
Fiske, S.T., D.R. Kinder, and W.M. Larter (1980) "The novice and the expert: Schematic strategies in political cognition." Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie-Mellon Univ. Press.
74.
Fiske, S.T. and P.W. Linville (1980) "What does the term schema buy us?" Personal andSocial Psychology Bull.6: 543-557.
75.
Fowlkes, D.L., J. Perkins, and S.T. Rinehart (1979) "Gender roles and party roles." Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.73 (September): 772-780.
76.
Gamson, W.A. (1975) The Strategy of Protest. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.
77.
Gibb, C. (1969) "Leadership," in G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (eds.) Handbook of Social Psychology. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
78.
Githens, M. and J.L. Prestage (1977) A Portrait of Marginality: The Political Behavior of the American Woman. New York: David McKay.
79.
Glass, D.C. and J.E. Singer (1972) Urban Stress. New York: Academic Press.
80.
Goldstone, J.A. (1980) "The weakness of organization: a new look at Gamson's The Strategy of Social Protest." Amer. J. of Sociology85: 1017-1042.
81.
Hamblin, R.L. (1974) "Social attitudes: magnitude measurement and theory ," in H. M. Blalock (ed.) Measurement in the Social Sciences: Theories and Strategies. Chicago: Aldine.
82.
——— (1958a) "Group integration during a crisis." Human Relations11: 67-76. ——— ( 1958b) "Leadership and Crises." Sociomentry21: 322-335.
83.
——— and B.L. Pitcher (1981) "Collective learning in large-scale violent conflicts ." Unpublished manuscript, University of Arizona.
84.
——— (1980) "The classic Maya collapse: testing class conflict hypotheses." American Antiquity45: 246-247.
85.
Hamblin, R.L., D. Buckholdt, D. Ferritor, M. Kosloff, and L. Black-Well (1971) The Humanization Process: A Social, Behavioral Analysis of Children's Problems. New York: John Wiley.
86.
Hamblin, R.L., M. Hout, J.L.L. Miller, and B.L. Pitcher (1977) "Arms races: a test of two models." Amer. Soc. Rev.42: 338-354.
87.
Hamblin, R.L., R.B. Jacobsen, and J.L.L. Miller( 1973)A Mathematical Theory of Social Change. New York: John Wiley.
88.
Hamilton, W.D. (1964) "The genetical theory of social behavior," I and II. J. of Theoretical Biology7: 1-52.
89.
Hart, J.T. (1965) "Memory and the feeling of knowing experience." J. of Educ. Psychology56: 208-216.
90.
Hastie, R. (1980) "Schematic principles in human memory," in E. T. Higgins et al. (eds.) Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium on Personality and Social Behavior . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum .
91.
Helmreich, R.L. and B.E. Collins (1967) "Situational determinants of affiliative preferences under stress." J. of Personality and Social Psychology6: 79-85.
92.
Henry, J.P., D.L. Ely, F.M.C. Watson, and P.M. Stephens (1975)"Ethological methods as applied to the measurement of emotion," in L. Levi (ed.) Emotions— Their Parameters and Measurement. New York : Raven Press, pp. 470-497.
93.
Hoyenga, K.B. and K.T. Hoyenga (1979) The Question of Sex Differences. Boston: Little, Brown.
94.
Janowitz, M. and D. Marvick (1953) "Authoritarianism and political behavior." Public Opinion Q.17: 185-201.
95.
Jennings, M.K. (1979) "Another look at the life cycle and political participation ." Amer. J. of Political Science23 (November): 755-771.
96.
Jennings, M.K. and N. Thomas (1968) "Men and women in party elites." Amer. J. of Political Science12: 469-492.
97.
Johnson, M. and S. Carroll (1978) Profiles of Women Holding Public Office II. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for the American Women and Politics.
98.
Johnson, M. and K. Stanwick (1976) Profiles of Women Holding Public Office I. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for the American Women and Politics.
99.
Kelley, H.H. et al. (1965) "Collective behavior in a simulated panic situation." J. of Experimental Social Psychology1: 20-54.
Key, V.O., Jr. (1961) Public Opinion and American Democracy. New York: Knopf.
102.
Kincaid, D. (1978) "Over his dead body: a positive perspective on widows in the U.S. Congress." Western Political Q.31 (March): 96-104.
103.
Kintsch, W. (1974) The Representation of Meaning in Memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
104.
Kirkpatrick, J. (1976) The New Presidential Elite. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
105.
——— (1974) Political Women. New York: Basic Books.
106.
Klein, A.L. (1975) "Changes in leadership appraisal as a function of the stress of a simulated panic situation and task outcome." Ph.D. dissertation , Tulane University.
107.
Kohlberg, L.A. (1966) "A cognitive-development analysis of children's sex role concepts and attitudes," in E. E. Maccoby (ed.) The Development of Sex Differences.
108.
Lachman, R., J. Lachman, and E. Butterfield (1979) Cognitive Psychology and Information Processing: An Introduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
109.
Lafferty, W.M. (1980) "Sex and political participation: an exploratory analysis of the female culture." European J. of Pol. Research8 (September): 323-347.
110.
Lanzetta, J.T. (1955) "Group behavior under stress." Human Relations8: 29-52.
111.
Larsen, R.R. (1976) "Charisma: a reinterpretation," in M. Chance and R. R. Larsen (eds.) The Social Structure of Attention. New York: John Wiley.
112.
Lee, M.M. (1976) "Toward understanding why few women hold public office: factors affecting the participation of women in local politics." Political Science Q. 91 (Summer).
113.
Lenski, G. and J. Lenski (1978) Human Societies. New York: McGraw-Hill.
114.
Li, R.P.Y. and W.R. Thompson (1975) "The coups contagion hypothesis." J. of Conflict Resolution19: 63-88.
115.
Lipset, S.M. (1976) The Public Interest43: 70-89.
116.
——— (1959) Political Man. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
117.
Lodge, M. and B. Tursky (1981) "On the magnitude scaling of political opinion in survey research." Amer. J. of Political Science25: 376-419.
118.
——— (1979) "Comparisons between category and magnitude scaling of political opinion employing SRC/CPS items." Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.73: 50-66.
119.
Loftus, G.R. and E.F. Loftus (1976) Human Memory: The Processing of Information. New York: John Wiley.
120.
Lynn, N. and C.B. Flora (1977) "Societal punishment and aspects of female political participation: 1972 national convention delegates," in Githens and Prestage (eds.) Portrait of Marginality.
121.
Maccoby, E.E. (1966) The Development of Sex Differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
122.
Madsen, D. (1978) "A structural approach to the explanation of political efficacy levels under democratic regimes." Amer. J. of Pol. Sci.22: 867-883.
123.
——— and P. Snow (1976) "Peron and Peronism: the routinization of charisma ." Presented at the IPSA Congress, Edinburgh, Scotland.
124.
Manogue, K.R., A.I. Leshner, and D.K. Candland (1975) "Dominance status and adrenocortical activity in response to stress in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)." Primates16: 457-463.
125.
Margolis, D. (1980) "The invisible hands: sex roles and the division of labor in two local political parties," Ch. I in D. W. Stewart (ed.) Women in Local Politics. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.
126.
Maslow, A. (1939) "Dominance, personality and social behavior in women." J. of Social Psychology10 (February): 3-39.
127.
Mason, J.W. (1968) "A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary-adrenal cortical system." Psychosomatic Medicine30: 576-607.
128.
Masters, R.D. (1976) "The impact of ethology on political science," in A. Somit (ed.) Biology and Politics . The Hague: Mouton and International Social Science Council.
129.
Maynard Smith, J. (1964) "Group selection and kin selection." Nature201: 1145-1147.
130.
Mayr, E. (1963) Populations, Species, and Evolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
131.
McCrone, D. and C. Cnudde (1967) "Toward a communications theory of democratic political development: a causal model." Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.61: 72-79.
132.
McGuire, M.T. (1974) The St. Kitts Vervet. Basel : Karger.
133.
——— S. Cole, and C. Crookshank (1978) "The effects of social density changes in Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus." Primates19: 615-631.
134.
McGuire, M.T., L.A. Fairbanks, S.R. Cole, R. Sbordone, F.M. Silvers, and J. Akers (1977) "An ethological study of four psychiatric wards II." J. Psychiat. Res.13: 211-224.
Mezey, S.G. (1978) "Does sex make a difference? A case study of women in politics." WPQ31: 492-501.
137.
Milgram, S. (1974) Obedience to Authority. New York: Academic Press.
138.
Miller, A. (1974a) "Political issues and trust in government: 1964-1970 ." Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.68: 951-972.
139.
——— ( 1974b) "Rejoinder to comment by Jack Citrin: political discontent or ritualism?" Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.68: 989-1001.
140.
Miller, J.L.L. and R.L. Hamblin (1981) "Conflict events file for Latin America, 1946-1975 ." Unpublished.
141.
Miller, L.W. and L.F. Noyes (1980) "Winners and losers: women candidates for municipal elections revisited." Presented at MPSA meeting , Chicago, April.
142.
Miller, W. and A. Miller (1974) Confidence in Government: The Origin and Impact of the Decline, 1958-1972. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Political Studies.
143.
Minsky, M. (1975) "A framework for representing knowledge," in P. H. Winston (ed.) The Psychology of Computer Vision. New York: John Wiley.
144.
Mischel, W., E.B. Ebbesen, and A.M. Zeiss (1976) "Determinants of selective memory about the self ." J. of Consulting and Clinical Psychology44: 92-103.
145.
Neisser, V. (1976) Cognition and Reality: Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
146.
Nie, N.H., S. Verba, and J.R. Petrocik (1976) The Changing American Voter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
147.
Niemi, R.G. and H.F. Weisberg (1976) Controversies in American Voting Behavior. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
148.
Nisbet, R.E. and T.D. Wilson (1977) "Telling more than we can know: verbal reports on mental processes." Psych. Rev.84: 231-259.
149.
Norman, D.A. and D.G. Bobrow (1975) "On data-limited and resource-limited processes ." Cognitive Psychology7: 44-64.
150.
Northrop, A.C. (1904) The successful women of America." Popular Science Monthly63 (January): 239-244.
151.
Nunnally, J.C. (1967) Psychological Theory. New York : McGraw-Hill.
152.
Oberschall, A. (1978) "Theories of social conflict," in R. H. Turner et al. (eds.) Annual Review of Sociology 4. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
153.
O'Brien, D. (1977) "Female husbands in South Bantu societies," in Schlegel (ed.) Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View.
154.
Omark, D. R., F. F. Strayer , and D. G. Freedman [eds.] (1980) Dominance Relations: An Ethological View of Human Conflict and Social Interactions. New York: Garland Press.
155.
Parsons, T. and R.F. Bales (1955) Family, Socialization and Interaction Process. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
156.
Payne, S.L. (1951) The Art of Asking Questions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
157.
Piers, M. (1978) Infanticide. New York: Norton.
158.
Pitcher, B.L., R.L. Hamblin, and J.L.L. Miller (1978) "The diffusion of collective violence." Amer. Soc. Rev.43: 23-35.
159.
Quarton, G.C., T. Melnechuk, and F.O. Schmitt (1967) The Neurosciences. New York : Rockefeller Univ. Press.
160.
Raleigh, M.J. (1977) "The effects of orbitofrontal lesions on the social behavior of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus)." Ph.D. dissertation , University of California at Berkeley.
161.
——— and M.T. McGuire (1980) "Biosociopharmacology." J. McLean Hosp.2: 73-84.
162.
Rashevsky, N. (1959) Mathematical Biology of Social Behavior. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
163.
Renner, J. and V. Renner (1972) "Effects of stress on group versus individual problem solving." Psych. Reports30: 487-491.
164.
Rindfuss, R.R., L. Bumpass, and C. St. John (1980) "Education and fertility: implications for the roles women occupy." Amer. Soc. Rev.45 (June): 431-447.
165.
Rips, L.J., E.J. Shoben, and E.E. Smith (1973) "Semantic distance and the verification of semantic relations." J. of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior13: 1-20.
166.
Rosch, E. (1975) "Cognitive representations of semantic categories ." J. of Experimental Psychology104: 192-233.
167.
Rose, R.M. and M.W. Hurst (1975) "Plasman cortisol and growth hormone response to intravenous catheterization." Human Stress1: 22-36.
168.
Rosenbaum, L. and W. Rosenbaum (1971) "Morale and productivity consequences of group leadership style, stress and type of task." J. of Applied Psychology55: 343-348.
169.
Rossi, A. (1977) "A biosocial perspective on parenting." Daedalus106 (Spring): 1-32.
170.
Russo, N.F. (1976) "The motherhood mandate." J. of Social Issues32: 143-153.
171.
Sassenrath, E.N. (1970) "Increased adrenal responsiveness related to social stress in Rhesus monkey." Hormones and Behavior1: 283-298.
172.
Savin-Williams, R.C. (1977) "Dominance in a human adolescent group." Animal Behavior25: 400-406.
173.
Schachter, S. (1959) The Psychology of Affiliation. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
174.
Schjelderup-Ebbe, T. (1935) "Social behavior of birds," in C. Murchison (ed.) A Handbook of Social Psychology . Worcester, MA: Clark Univ. Press .
175.
Schlegel, A. [ed.] (1977) Sexual Stratification: A Cross-Cultural View. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
176.
Schubert, G. (1976) "Politics as a life science: how and why the impact of modern biology will revolutionize the study of political behavior," in A. Somit (ed.) Biology and Politics . The Hague: Mouton and International Social Science Council.
177.
Schuman, H. and O.D. Duncan (1974) "Questions about attitude survey questions," in H. L. Costner (ed.) Sociological Methodology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
178.
Schuman, H. and S. Presser (1977) "Question wording as an independent variable in survey analysis." Soc. Methods and Research6: 151-170.
179.
Sherif, M. et al. (1960) Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers' Cave Experiment. Norman, OK: University Book Exchange.
180.
Shields, S.( 1975) "Functionalism, Darwinism and the psychology of women ." Amer. Psychologist30: 739-754.
181.
Shils, E.A. and M. Janowitz (1948) "Cohesion and disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War Two." Public Opinion Q.12: 280-315.
182.
Shorter, E. and C. Tilly (1974) Strikes in France, 1930-1968. London: Cambridge Univ. Press.
183.
Smith, E.R.A.N. (1980) "The levels of conceptualization: false measures of ideological sophistication." Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.74: 685-696.
184.
Solso, R.L. (1979) Cognitive Psychology. New York : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
185.
Somit, A. [ed.] (1976) Biology and Politics. The Hague and Paris : Mouton.
186.
Sorensen, A.B. and A. Sorensen (1977) Mathematical Sociology: A Trend Report and Bibliography, Vol. XXIII, No. 3 of Current Sociology. The Hague: Mouton.
187.
Spence, J.T. and R.L. Helmreich (1978) Masculinity and Femininity: Their Psychological Dimensions, Correlations and Antecedents. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.
188.
Stevens, J.C. and H.B. Savin (1962) "On the form of learning curves." J. of Experimental Analysis of Behavior5: 15-18.
189.
Stevens, S.S. (1975) Psychophysics: Introduction of its Perceptual, Neural, and Social Prospects. New York: John Wiley.
190.
Stewart, D. (1980) Women in Local Politics. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.
191.
Stewart, J.C. and J.P. Scott (1947) "Lack of correlation between leadership and dominance in a herd of goats.." J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.40: 255-264.
192.
Stogdill, R. (1974) Handbook of Leadership. New York: Free Press.
193.
Storms, M. (1979) "Sex role identity and its relationships to sex role attributes and sex role stereotypes." J. of Personality and Social Psychology31 (October): 1779-1789.
194.
Stouffer, S.A. (1949) The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
195.
Strayer, F.F. (1976) "Learning and imitation as a function of social status in macaque monkeys (Macaca nemestrina)." Animal Behavior24: 835-848.
196.
Stricker, F. (1976) "Cookbooks and law books: the hidden history of career women in 20th century America." J. of Social History10 (Fall): 1-19.
197.
Struhsaker, T.T. (1969) "Correlates of ecology and social organization among African cercopithecines." Folia. Primat.11: 80-118.
Strumfer, D. (1970) "Fear and affiliation during a disaster." J. of Social Psychology82: 263-268.
200.
Suchman, E.A. and L. Gutman (1947) "A solution to the problem of question 'bias.'" Public Opinion Q.11: 445-455.
201.
Sudman, S. and N.M. Bradburn (1974) Response Effects in Surveys. Chicago: Aldine.
202.
Sullivan, J.L., J.E. Piereson, and G.E. Marcus (1978) "Ideological constraint in mass public: a methodological critique and some new findings." Amer. J. of Pol. Sci.22: 233-249.
203.
Swets, J. A. [ed.] (1964) Signal Detection and Recognition by Human Observers. New York : John Wiley.
204.
Taylor, S.E. and J. Crocker (1980) "Schematic bases of social information processing ," in E. T. Higgins et al. (eds.) Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium on Personality and Social Behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
205.
Thurstone, L.L. (1930) "The learning function." J. of General Psychology3: 469-493.
206.
Tiger, L. and R. Fox (1971) The Imperial Animal. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
207.
Tilly, C. (1975) "Revolutions and collective violence," in F. I. Greenstein and N. W. Polsby (eds.) Handbook of Political Violence, Vol. 3. Reading, MA: Addison-Welsey.
208.
Towill, D.R. (1976) "Transfer functions and learning curves." Ergonomics19: 623-638.
209.
Tresemer, D. (1975) "Assumptions made about gender roles," in M. Millman and R. Kanter (eds.) Another Voice. New York : Anchor Books.
210.
Trivers, R.L. (1971) "The evolution of reciprocal altruism." Quarterly Rev. of Biology46: 35-57.
211.
Tulving, E. and W. Donaldson (1972) Organization of Memory. New York: Academic Press.
212.
Tursky, B. et al. (1970) "Differential patterns of heart rate and skin resistance during a digital-transformation task." J. of Experimental Psychology83: 451-457.
213.
Wahlke, J. (1979) "Pre-behavioralism in political science." Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev.73: 9-31.
214.
Wang, C.K.A. (1932) "Suggested criteria for writing statements." J. of Social Psychology3: 367-373.
215.
Waterhouse, M. and H. Waterhouse (1979) "Gift exchange—some observations." Biology and Human Affairs44: 22-30.
216.
Webb, E.I., D.T. Campbell, R.D. Schwartz, and L. Sechrest( 1966) Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Research in the Social Sciences. Chicago: Rand McNally .
217.
Weber, M. (1968) Economy and Society. New York : Bedminster Press.
218.
Weisstein, N. and C.S. Harris (1976) "Visual detection of line segments: object superiority ." Science86: 752-755.
219.
Welch, S. (1977) "Women as political animals? a test of some explanations for male-female political participation differences." Amer. J. of Pol. Sci.21: (November) 711-730.
220.
Werner, E.E. (1968) "Women in the State Legislatures." Western Pol. Q.21 (March): 40-50.
221.
——— (1966) "Women in Congress: 1917-1964." Western Pol. Q.19 (March): 16-30.
222.
——— and L. Bachtold (1974) "Personality characteristics of women in American politics," in J. S. Jaquette (ed.) Women in Politics. New York: John Wiley.
223.
West-Eberhard, M.J. (1975) "The evolution of social behavior by kin selection ." Quarterly Rev. of Biology50: 1-33.
224.
Wilson, E.O. (1975) Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
225.
Wolfenstein, M. (1957) Disaster. Glencoe, IL: Glencoe Free Press.
226.
Zajonc, R.B. (1980) "Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inference ." Amer. Psychologist35: 151-175.
227.
Ziv, A. et al. (1974) "Children's psychological reactions to wartime stress." J. of Personality and Social Psychology30: 24-30.
