The response of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) to the pressure of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) is undertheorized. Scholarship on NGOs around IGOs is frequently idiosyncratic and laudatory, and we lack cumulation for cross-IGO generalizations about NGO impact within the frame of established international relations (IR) theory. From the central three IR paradigms (realism, liberalism, and constructivism) I elaborate a null and three alternative hypotheses to explain why an IGO would respond to NGO pressures. I benchmark these hypotheses to empirical indicators of NGO impact on IGOs. I then ‘test drive’ this framework against the highly relevant, easily cross-comparable Bretton Woods Institutions. I find that the World Bank responds functionally to NGO pressure: NGO outreach serves its mission efficiency. The International Monetary Fund responds defensively: NGOs are an organizational threat to be managed.
Abbott K. and Snidal D. ( 1998) Why states act through international organizations . Journal of Conflict Resolution42(1): 3-32.
2.
Baldwin D (ed.) (1993) Neorealism and Neoliberalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
3.
Barnett M. and Finnemore M. ( 1999) Politics, power and pathologies of international organizations . International Organization53(4): 699-732.
4.
Boli J and Thomas G (eds) (1999) Constructing World Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
5.
Brown D. ( 2008) Creating Credibility. Hartford : Kumarian.
6.
Busby J. ( 2007) Bono made Jesse Helms cry: Jubilee 2000, debt relief, and moral action in international politics. International Studies Quarterly51(2): 247-75.
7.
Cortell A. and Peterson S. ( 2006) Dutiful agents, rogue actors, or both? In: Hawkins D, Lake D, Nielson D, et al. (eds) Delegation and Agency in International Organizations. New York: Cambridge University Press, 255-80.
8.
Cox R. and Jacobson H. ( 1973) Framework for inquiry. In: Diehl P (ed.) Politics of Global Governance. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 101-16.
9.
Edwards M and Gaventa J (eds) (2001) Global Citizen Action. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
10.
Farazmand A. ( 2002a) Organizational theory. In: Farazmand A (ed.) Modern Organization. Westport, CT: Praeger, 19-62.
11.
Farazmand A. ( 2002b) Emergent theories of organizations. In: Farazmand A (ed.) Modern Organization. Westport, CT: Praeger, 63-96.
12.
Fisher J. ( 1993) The Road from Rio. Westport, CT: Praeger.
13.
Florini A (ed.) (2000) Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society. Washington, DC: CEIP.
14.
Fox J. ( 2002) World Bank Inspection Panel and the limits of accountability . In: Pincus J, Winters J (eds) Reinventing the World Bank. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 131-63.
15.
Fox J. and Brown D. ( 1998) Struggle for Accountability. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
16.
George A. ( 1979) Cases studies and theory development. In: Lauren P (ed.) Diplomacy. New York: Free Press, 43-68.
17.
Gilbert C and Vines D (eds) (2000) World Bank. New York: Cambridge University Press.
18.
Gould E. ( 2006) Delegating IMF conditionality. In: Hawkins D, Lake D, Nielson D, et al. (eds) Delegation and Agency in International Organizations. New York: Cambridge University Press, 218-311.
19.
Grant R. and Keohane R. ( 2005) Accountability and abuses of power in world politics . American Political Science Review99(1): 29-43.
20.
Gutner T. ( 2005) World Bank environmental reform: Revisiting lessons from agency theory. International Organization59(3): 773-83.
21.
Hawkins D. and Jacoby W. ( 2006) How agents matter. In: Hawkins D, Lake D, Nielson D, et al. (eds) Delegation and Agency in International Organizations. New York: Cambridge University Press, 199-228.
22.
Hawkins D, Lake D, Nielson D, et al. (eds) (2006) Delegation and Agency in International Organizations. New York: Cambridge University Press.
23.
IMF (1989) Annual Report . Washington, DC: IMF.
24.
IMF (1996) Annual Report . Washington, DC: IMF.
25.
IMF (1997) Annual Report . Washington, DC: IMF.
26.
IMF (1998) Annual Report . Washington, DC: IMF.
27.
IMF (2000) Annual Report . Washington, DC: IMF.
28.
IMF (2001a) IMF and civil society organizations: Striking a balance. Washington, DC: IMF.
29.
IMF (2001b) What is the IMF?Washington, DC: IMF.
30.
IMF (2001c) Financial organization and operation of the IMF. Washington, DC: IMF.
31.
IMF (2002a) Governance of the IMF. Washington, DC: IMF.
32.
IMF (2002b) Annual Report . Washington, DC: IMF.
33.
IMF (2003) Review of the Fund’s external communications strategy. Washington, DC: IMF.
34.
Kapur D. ( 2002) Changing anatomy of governance of the World Bank . In: Pincus J, Winters J (eds) Reinventing the World Bank. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 54-75.
35.
Karns M. and Mingst K. ( 2004) International Organizations. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner.
36.
Keck M. and Sikkink K. ( 1998) Activists Beyond Borders. Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press.
37.
Kelly R. ( 2007) From IR to global governance theory. Journal of Civil Society3(1): 81-99.
38.
Kelly R. ( 2008) Portrait of global civil society at the Bretton Woods Institutions. Korean Journal of International Relations48(5): 51-80.
39.
Keohane RO and Nye JS ( 2000) Introduction. In: Nye JS, Donahue JD (eds) Governance in a Globalizing World. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1-44.
40.
Khagram S., Riker J. and Sikkink K. ( 2002) From Santiago to Seattle. In: Sanjeev K, Riker J, Sikkink K (eds) Restructuring World Politics . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 3-23.
41.
Koremenos B., Lipson C. and Snidal D. ( 2001) The rational design of international institutions . International Organizations55(4): 761-99.
42.
Larsen F. ( 2000) IMF’s dialogue with NGOs. Transnational Associations6: 278-81.
43.
Lombardi D. and Woods N. ( 2008) Politics of influence. Review of International Political Economy15(5): 711-39.
44.
London School of Economics (2001-09) Global Civil Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
45.
March J. and Olson J. ( 1989) Rediscovering Institutions. New York : Free Press.
46.
Martin L. ( 2006) Distribution, information, and delegation to international organizations. In: Hawkins D, Lake D, Nielson D, et al. (eds) Delegation and Agency in International Organizations. New York: Cambridge University Press, 140-64.
47.
Martin L. and Simmons B. ( 1998) Theories and empirical studies on international institutions . International Organization52(4): 729-57.
48.
Mearsheimer J. ( 1995) False promise of international institutions. International Security19(3): 5-49. Miller-Adams M. ( 1999) World Bank. New York: Routledge.
49.
Nelson P. ( 1995) World Bank and Non-governmental Organizations. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
50.
Nelson P. ( 1996) Internationalizing economic and environmental policy . Millennium25(3): 505-33.
51.
Nelson P. ( 2001) Information, location and legitimacy. In: Edwards M, Gaventa J (eds) Global Citizen Action. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 59-72.
52.
Nielson D. and Tierney M. ( 2003) Delegation to international organizations. International Organization57(2): 241-76.
53.
Nielson D. and Tierney M. ( 2005) Theory, data and hypothesis testing. International Organization59(3): 785-800.
54.
O’Brien R., Goetz AM, Scholte J., et al. (2000) Contesting Global Governance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
55.
Risse T. ( 2000) Communicative action in world politics. International Organization54(1): 1-39.
56.
Risse T. ( 2002) Transnational actors and world politics. In: Carlsnaes W, Risse T , Simmons B (eds) Handbook of International Relations. London: Sage, 255-74.
57.
Scholte J. ( 2000) Globalization. New York: Palgrave.
58.
Scholte J. ( 2007) Civil society and the legitimation of global governance . Center for the Study of Globalization and Regionalization , Warwick, Paper 223/07.
59.
Scholte J. ( 2008) Civil society and IMF accountability. Center for the Study of Globalization and Regionalization, Warwick, Paper 244/08.
60.
Schweller R. and Priess D. ( 1997) Tale of two realisms. Mershon International Studies Review41: 1-32.
61.
Sechooler A. ( 2009) Democratizing global governance?New Global Studies3(2): 1-35.
62.
Smith J and Johnston H (eds) (2002) Globalization and Resistance . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield .
63.
Smith J, Chatfield C and Pagnucco R (eds) ( 1997a) Transnational Social Movements: Solidarity Beyond the State. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
64.
Smith J., Chatfield C. and Pagnucco R. ( 1997b) Social movements and world politics. In: Smith J, Chatfield C , Pagnucco R (eds) Transnational Social Movements. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 59-77.
65.
Stone R. ( 2008) Scope of IMF conditionality. International Organization62(4): 589-620.
66.
Tarrow S. ( 1998) Power in Movement. New York : Cambridge University Press.
67.
Wade R. ( 1997) Greening the Bank. In: Kapur D, Lewis J, Webb R (eds) World Bank, Volume II. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 611-734.
68.
Wade R. ( 2002) US hegemony and the World Bank. Review of International Political Economy9(2): 215-43.
69.
Waltz K. ( 1979) Theory of International Politics. Reading: Addison.
70.
Wilkinson R. ( 2002) Contours of courtship. In: Wilkinson R, Hughes S (eds) Global Governance. New York: Routledge , 193-211.
71.
Willetts P (ed.) (1982) Pressure Groups in the Global System. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
72.
Woods N. ( 2000) Challenges of multilateralism and governance. In: Gilbert C, Vines D (eds) World Bank. New York: Cambridge University Press, 132-56.
73.
Woods N. ( 2006) Globalizers. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
74.
World Bank (1988-2004) Annual progress report on World Bank-NGO cooperation. Washington, DC: World Bank.
75.
World Bank (1990) Annual Report . Washington, DC: World Bank.
76.
World Bank (1992) Annual Report . Washington, DC: World Bank.
77.
World Bank (1993) Republic of Uganda. Washington, DC: World Bank .
78.
World Bank (1995) Working with NGOs. Washington, DC: World Bank .
79.
World Bank (1996a) NGO-World Bank partnerships. Washington, DC: World Bank.
80.
World Bank (1996b) World Bank’s partnership with NGOs. Washington, DC: World Bank.
81.
World Bank (1998a) Nurturing civil society at the World Bank. Washington, DC: World Bank.
82.
World Bank (1998b) Bank’s relations with NGOs. Washington, DC: World Bank.
83.
World Bank (1999a) NGOs in World Bank-supported projects. Washington, DC: World Bank.
84.
World Bank (1999b) Food for thought . Washington, DC: World Bank.
85.
World Bank (1999c) Annual Report . Washington, DC: World Bank.
86.
World Bank (2000a) Participation process review. Washington, DC: World Bank.
87.
World Bank (2000b) Consultation with civil society organizations. Washington, DC: World Bank.
88.
World Bank (2000c) Civil society, NGOs, and development in Ethiopia. Washington, DC: World Bank.
89.
World Bank (2000d) From confrontation to collaboration. Washington, DC: World Bank.
90.
World Bank (2001) Consultations with civil society. Washington, DC: World Bank.
91.
World Bank (2002) Annual Report . Washington, DC: World Bank.
92.
World Bank (2003a) Annual Report . Washington, DC: World Bank.
93.
World Bank (2003b) Guide to Understanding the World Bank. Washington, DC: World Bank.
94.
World Bank (2003c) Toward Country-led Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
95.
World Bank (2003d) Working together . Washington, DC: World Bank.
96.
World Bank (2004) Annual Report . Washington, DC: World Bank.
97.
World Bank (2005) Issues and options. Washington, DC: World Bank .
98.
World Vision ( 2003) IMF and civil society. Monrovia : World Vision.
