Social psychological investigations of hierarchy formation have been almost entirely confined to the case of task-oriented groups and hence have produced theories that turn on the existence of such a task. But other forms of vertical hierarchy may emerge in non-task groups. One form, orderings of dominance, has been studied among animals using systematic behavioral observations, but almost never among humans, despite many discussions of such structures existing among adolescent males. Using stochastic models, this paper examines change in vertical orderings for data on dominance encounters among same-sex adolescent campers. There seem to be different paths for stabilization of vertical hierarchies for boys and girls, both of which involve the emergence of special roles, the top boy or the bottom girl. Further, stabilization seems to be greatly facilitated (at least for boys) by members adopting Roger Gould's theory of dominance encounters and turning their attention to those close in rank.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbramovitchRona1980. “Attention Structures in Hierarchically Organized Groups.” Pp. 381–396 in Dominance Relations: An Ethological View of Human Conflict and Social Interaction, edited byOmarkDonald R.StrayerF.F.FreedmanDaniel G.. New York: Garland.
2.
BalesRobert F.1950. Interaction Process Analysis.Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
3.
BalesRobert F.SlaterPhilip E.1955. “Role Differentiation in Small Decision-Making Groups.” Pp. 259–306 in Family, Socialization and Interaction Process, edited byParsonsTalcottBalesRobert F.. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
4.
BattenMary1992. Sexual Strategies.New York: Putnam.
5.
BergerJosephZelditchMorrisJr.1998. Status, Power, and Legitimacy.New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
6.
BergerJosephFisekM. HamitNormanRobert Z.ZelditchMorrisJr.1977. Status Characteristics and Social Interaction.New York: Elsevier.
7.
BlauPeter M.1964. Exchange and Power in Social Life.New York: Wiley.
8.
BoehmChristopher1997. “Egalitarian Behavior and the Evolution of Political Intelligence.” Pp. 341–64 in Machiavellian Intelligence II, edited byByrneRichard W.WhitenAndrew. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
9.
BöröczJózsef1997. “Stand Reconstructed: Contingent Closure and Institutional Change.”Sociological Theory15: 215–48.
BradleyRalph A.1953. “Some Statistical Methods in Taste Testing and Quality Evaluation.”Biometrics9: 22–38.
12.
BradleyRalph A.1965. “Another Interpretation of a Model for Paired Comparisons.”Psychometrika30 (3): 315–18.
13.
BradleyRalph A.TerryM. B.1952. “Rank Analysis of Incomplete Block Designs: I, The Method of Paired Comparisons.”Biometrika39: 324–45.
14.
BygottJ. David1979. “Agonistic Behavior, Dominance and Social Structure in Wild Chimpanzees of the Gombe National Park.” Pp. 405–27 in The Great Apes, edited byHamburgDavid A.McCownElizabeth R.. Menlo Park, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company.
15.
ChapaisBernard2004. “How Kinship Generates Dominance Structures: A Comparative Perspective.” Pp. 186–203 in Macaque Societies: A Model for the Study of Social Organization, edited byThierryBernardSinghMewaKaumannsWerner. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
16.
ChaseIvan D.1980. “Social Processes and Hierarchy Formation in Small Groups: A Comparative Perspective.”American Sociological Review45: 905–24.
17.
CheneyDorothy L.SeyfarthRobert M.1990. How Monkeys See the World.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
18.
ChizhikAlexander W.AlexanderMichele G.ChizhikEstella W.GoodmanJeffrey A.2003. “The Rise and Fall of Power and Prestige Orders: Influence of Task Structure.”Social Psychology Quarterly66: 303–17.
19.
CohenBernard P.ZhouXuenguang1991. “Status Processes in Enduring Work Groups.”American Sociological Review56: 179–88.
20.
ColemanJames S.1961. The Adolescent Society.New York: The Free Press of Glencoe.
21.
ColemanJames S.1964. Introduction to Mathematical Sociology.New York: The Free Press of Glencoe.
22.
CollinsRandall2000. “Situational Stratification: A Micro-Macro Theory of Inequality.”Sociological Theory18: 17–43.
23.
DavidH. A.1988. The Method of Paired Comparisons, second edition.London, UK: Charles Griffin.
24.
DaviesBronwyn1982. Life in the Classroom and Playground.London, UK: Routledge.
25.
DeagJohn M.1977. “Aggression and Submission in Monkey Societies.”Animal Behaviour25: 465–74.
DoreianPatrickKrackhardtDavid2001. “Pre-Transitive Balance Mechanisms for Signed Networks.”Journal of Mathematical Sociology25: 43–67.
28.
EderDonnaEvansCatherine ColleenParkerStephen1995. School Talk: Gender and Adolescent Culture.New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
29.
FararoThomas J.SkvoretzJohn1986. “E-State Structuralism: A Theoretical Method.”American Sociological Review51: 591–602.
30.
FararoThomas J.SkvoretzJohn1988. “Dynamics of the Formation of Stable Dominance Structures.” Pp. 327–50 in Status Generalization: New Theory and Research, edited byWebsterMurrayJr.FoschiMartha. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
31.
FararoThomas J.SkvoretzJohnKosakaKenji1994. “Advances in E-State Structuralism: Further Studies Dominance Structure Formation.”Social Networks16: 233–265.
32.
FienbergStephen E.LarntzKinley1976. “Log Linear Representation for Paired and Multiple Comparison Models.”Biometrika63: 245–54.
33.
FineGary Alan1987. With the Boys.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
34.
FisekM. HamitBergerJosephNormanRobert Z.1995. “Evaluations and the Formation of Expectations.”American Journal of Sociology101: 721–46.
35.
FisekM. HamitOfsheRichard1970. “The Process of Status Evolution.”Sociometry33: 327–46.
36.
FlackJessica C.De WaalFrans B. M.2004. “Dominance Style, Social Power and Conflict Management: A Conceptual Framework.” Pp. 157–181 in Macaque Societies: A Model for the Study of Social Organization, edited byThierryBernardSinghMewaKaumannsWerner. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
37.
FoddyMargaretSmithsonMichael1996. “Relative Ability, Paths of Relevance, and Influence in Task Oriented Groups.”Social Psychology Quarterly59: 140–53.
38.
GoffmanErving1971. Relations in Public.New York: Basic Books.
39.
GoodallJane1988. In the Shadow of Man, revised edition.Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin Company.
40.
GouldRoger V.2003. Collision of Wills: How Ambiguity about Social Rank Breeds Conflict.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
41.
GregoryStanford W.WebsterStephen1996. “A Nonverbal Signal in Voices of Interview Partners Effectively Predicts Communication Accommodation and Social Status Perceptions.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology70: 1231–40.
42.
HanfmannEugenia1935. “Social Structure of a Group of Kindergarten Children.”American Journal of Orthopsychiatry5: 407–10.
43.
HarveyO. J.1953. “An Experimental Approach to the Study of Status Relations in Informal Groups.”American Sociological Review18: 357–67.
44.
HeinickeChristophBalesRobert F.1953. “Developmental Trends in the Structure of Small Groups.”Sociometry16: 7–38.
45.
HölldoblerBertWilsonEdward O.1994. Journey to the Ants.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
46.
HollingsheadA. B.1949. Elmtown's Youth.New York: John Wiley and Sons.
47.
HomansGeorge C.1950. The Human Group.New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
48.
HomansGeorge C.1961. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms.New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
49.
HuntJ. McV.SolomonR. L.1942. “The Stability and Some Correlates of Group-Status in a Summer-Camp Group of Young Boys.”The American Journal of Psychology55: 33–45.
50.
IversonGeoffrey J.SadeDonald Stone1990. “Statistical Issues in the Analysis of Dominance Hierarchies in Animal Societies.”Journal of Quantitative Anthropology2: 61–83.
51.
JamesonKimberly A.ApplebyMichael C.FreemanLinton C.1999. “Finding an Appropriate Order for a Hierarchy Based on Probabilistic Dominance.”Animal Behaviour57: 991–98.
52.
KalmaAkko1991. “Hierarchisation and Dominance Assessment at First Glance.”European Journal of Social Psychology21: 165–81.
53.
KarweitNancyHansellStephen1983. “Sex Differences in Adolescent Relationships: Friendship and Status.” Pp. 115–30 in Friends in School: Patterns of Selection and Influence in Secondary Schools, edited byEpsteinJoyce LevyKarweitNancy. New York: Academic Press.
54.
KoffkaK1935. Principles of Gestalt Psychology.New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
55.
KummerH.KurtF.1967. “A Comparison of Social Behavior in Captive and Wild Hamadryas Baboons.” Pp. 65–80 in The Baboon in Medical Research, edited byVagtborgHarold. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
56.
LandauH. G.1951. “On Dominance Relations and the Structure of Animal Societies: II. Some Effects of Possible Social Factors.”Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics13: 245–62.
57.
LandauH. G.1953. “On Dominance Relations and the Structure of Animal Societies: III. The Condition for a Score Structure.”Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics15: 143–148.
58.
LaumannEdward O.1966. Prestige and Association in an Urban Community.Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill.
59.
LeeMargaret T.OfsheRichard1981. “The Impact of Behavioral Style and Status Characteristics on Social Influence: A Test of Two Competing Theories.”Social Psychology Quarterly44: 73–82.
60.
LenskiGerhard1954. “Status Crystallization: A Non-Vertical Dimension of Social Status.”American Sociological Review19: 405–13.
61.
LiebersonStanleyHorwichJoel2008. “Implication Analysis: A Pragmatic Proposal for Linking Theory and Data in the Social Sciences.”Sociological Methodology38: 1–50.
62.
LintonRalph1936. The Study of Man.New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
63.
MaineHenry Sumner [1861] 1888. Ancient Law.New York: Henry Holt.
64.
MartinJohn Levi2009. Social Structures.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
65.
MaslowAbraham H.1939. “Dominance, Personality, and Social Behavior in Women.”Journal of Social Psychology10: 3–39.
66.
MaynardDouglas W.1985. “On the Functions of Social Conflict Among Children.”American Sociological Review50: 207–23.
67.
MazurAllan1973. “A Cross-Species Comparison of Status in Small Established Groups.”American Sociological Review38: 513–30.
68.
MazurAllan2005. Biosociology of Dominance and Deference.Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
69.
McGrewW. C.1972. An Ethological Study of Children's Behavior.New York: Academic Press.
70.
MertonRobert K.1957. “The Role-Set: Problems In Sociological Theory.”British Journal of Sociology8: 106–20.
71.
NishidaToshisadaHiraiwa-HasegawaMariko1987. “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships Among Males.” Pp. 165–177 in Primate Societies, edited bySmutsBarbara B.CheneyDorothy L.SeyfarthRobert M.WranghamRichard W.StruhsakerThomas T.. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
72.
RamirezJ. Martin1980. “Behavioral Parameters of Social Dominance in Rats.”Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society15: 96–98.
73.
RasmussenDennis R.1988. “Studies of Food-Enhanced Primate Groups: Current and Potential Areas of Contribution to Primate Social Ecology.” Pp. 313–46 in Ecology and Behavior of Food-Enhanced Primate Groups, edited byFaJohn E.SouthwickCharles H.. New York: Alan R. Liss.
74.
RidgewayCecilia L.1987. “Nonverbal Behavior, Dominance, and the Basis of Status in Task Groups.”American Sociological Review52: 683–94.
75.
RobertsJohn M.Jr.1990. “Modeling Hierarchy: Transitivity and The Linear Ordering Problem.”Journal of Mathematical Sociology16: 77–87.
76.
RosaEugeneMazurAllan1979. “Incipient Status in Small Groups.”Social Forces58: 18–37.
77.
RowellT. E.1971. “Organization of Caged Groups of Cercopithecus Monkeys.”Animal Behavior19: 625–45.
78.
SadeDonald StoneAltmannMichaelLoyJamesHausfaterGlennBreuggemanJudith A.1988. “Sociometrics of Macaca mulatta II. Decoupling Centrality and Dominance in Rhesus Monkey Social Networks.”American Journal of Physical Anthropology77: 409–425.
79.
Savin-WilliamsRitch C.1987. Adolescence: An Ethological Perspective.New York: Springer-Verlag.
80.
Schjelderup-EbbeThorleif1922. “Beiträge zur Sozialpsychologie des Haushuhns.”Zeitschrift für Psychologie88: 225–52.
81.
Schjelderup-EbbeThorleif1935. “Social Behavior in Birds.” Pp. 947–972 in The Handbook of Social Psychology, edited byMurchisonCarl. Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
82.
SchofieldJanet Ward1981. “Complementary and Conflicting Identities: Images and Interaction in an Interracial Scheme, a.” Pp. 53–90 in The Development of Children's Friendships, edited byAsherSteven R.GottmanJohn M.. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
83.
ShellyRobert K.TroyerLisa2001. “Emergence and Completion of Structure in Initially Undefined and Partially Structured Groups.”Social Psychology Quarterly64: 319–32.
84.
SherifMuzaferHarveyO.J.WhiteB. JackHoodWilliam R.SherifCarolyn W.1988 [1961]. The Robbers Cave Experiment.Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
85.
SkorvetzJohnFararoThomas J.1996. “Status and Participation in Task Groups: A Dynamic Network Model.”American Journal of Sociology101: 1366–1414.
86.
SlaterPhilip E.1955. “Role Differentiation in Small Groups.” Pp. 498–515 in Small Groups: Studies in Social Interaction, edited byHareA. PaulBorgattaEdgar F.BalesRobert F.. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
87.
SlaterPhilip E.1966. Microcosm.New York: Wiley.
88.
SnijdersTom A. B.1997. “Stochastic Actor-Oriented Models for Network Change.” Pp. 185–208 in Evolution of Social Networks, edited byDoreianPatrickStokmanFrans N.. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Gordon and Breach.
89.
StewartDaniel 205. “Social Status in an Open-Source Community.”American Sociological Review70: 823–42.
90.
StrayerF. F.StrayerJanet1976. “An Ethological Analysis of Social Agonism and Dominance Relations among Preschool Children.”Child Development47: 980–89.
91.
StrierKaren B.2000. Primate Behavioral Ecology.Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
92.
StrierKaren B.2003. “Primatology Comes of Age: 2002 AAPA Luncheon Address.” “Primatology Comes of Age: 2002 AAPA Luncheon Address.”Yearbook of Physical Anthropology46: 2–13.
93.
StrongmanK. T.ChampnessB. G.1968. “Dominance Hierarchies and Conflict in Eye Contact.”Acta Psychologica28: 376–86.
94.
SumnerWilliam Graham1906. Folkways.Boston, MA: Ginn and Company.
95.
TigerLionel1970. “Dominance in Human Societies.”Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics1: 287–306.
96.
VaughnBrian E.WatersEverett1980. “Social Organization Among Preschool Peers: Dominance, Attention, and Sociometric Correlates.” Pp. 359–79 in Dominance Relations: An Ethological View of Human Conflict and Social Interaction, edited byOmarkDonald R.StrayerF.F.FreedmanDaniel G.. New York: Garland.
97.
de WaalFrans1977. “The Organization of Agonistic Relations within Two Captive Groups of Java-Monkeys (Macaca fascicularis).“Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie44: 225–82.
98.
de WaalFrans1998. Chimpanzee Politics, revised edition. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
99.
WaltersJeffrey R.SeyfarthRobert M.1987. “Conflict and Cooperation.” Pp. 165–177 in Primate Societies, edited bySmutsBarbara B.CheneyDorothy L.SeyfarthRobert M.WranghamRichard W.StruhsakerThomas T.. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
100.
WeberMax1947. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, translated by A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons. New York: Oxford University Press.
101.
WhyteWilliam Foote [1943] 1981. Street Corner Society, third edition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
102.
WyattDannyChoudhuryTanzeemBilmesJeffKittsJames A.2008. “Towards the Automated Social Analysis of Situated Speech Data.” Pp. 168–171 in Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing, Seoul, Korea. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series; Vol. 344.
103.
ZablockiBenjamin1980. Alienation and Charisma.New York: The Free Press.
104.
ZelditchMorrisJr.1961. “Can You Really Study an Army in the Laboratory?” Pp. 528–39 in A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations, second edition, edited byEtzioniAmitai. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
105.
ZermeloE1929. “Die Berechnung der Turnier-Ergebnisse als ein Maximumproblem der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung.”Mathetmatische Zeitschrift29: 436–60.
