This paper empirically explores what constitutes design attitude. Previous studies have called on managers to adopt such an attitude in creating products, services and processes that are both profitable and humanly satisfying. However, what a design attitude actually is made of has not been researched. In this study I therefore investigate the nature of this attitude, as displayed by professional designers. Interview data from senior designers and managers from four internationally recognized, design-led organizations (IDEO, Nissan Design, Philips Design and Wolff Olins) are collected in order to characterize the likely shape of a work-based attitude promoted by designers themselves. The five theoretical categories characterizing design attitude that arise from the data are: 'Consolidating multidimensional meanings', 'Creating, bringing to life', 'Embracing discontinuity and open-endedness', 'Embracing personal and commercial empathy' and 'Engaging polysensorial aesthetics'. Finally, the implications of these findings for organization research are discussed.
Alexander, Christopher , Sara Ishikawa , and Murray Silverstein1977A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. New York: Oxford University Press.
2.
Argyris, Chris , and Donald Schön1978Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective . Reading: MA: Addison-Wesley.
3.
Becher, Tony1981'Towards a definition of disciplinary cultures' . Studies in Higher Education6/2: 109—122.
4.
Bernstein, David1988 'The design mind' in Design talks . Peter Gorb and Eric Schneider (eds). London: The Design Council / London Business School, Design Management Seminars .
5.
Bloor, Geoffrey , and Patrick Dawson1994'Understanding professional culture in organizational context' . Organization Studies15/2: 275—295.
6.
Boland, Richard J. , and Fred Collopy2004 'Design matters for management' in Managing as designing. Richard J. Boland and Fred Collopy (eds), 3—18. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
7.
Broja de Mozota, Brigitte2003Design management: Using design to build brand value and corporate innovation. New York: Allworth Press.
8.
Bruce, Margaret , and John Bessant2002Design in business: Strategic innovation through design. Harlow, UK: Financial TimesPrentice Hall .
9.
Bruce, Margaret , and Rachel Harun2001 ' Exploring design capability for serial innovation in SMEs '. European Design Academy Conference, Portugal , April 2001.
10.
Buchanan, Richard1995 'Rhetoric, humanism, and design' in Discovering design: Explorations in design studies. Richard Buchanan and Victor Margolin (eds), 23—66. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
11.
Buchanan, Richard2004 'Management and design' in Managing as designing . Richard J. Boland Jr. and Fred Collopy (eds), 54—63. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
12.
Chandler Jr., Alfred D.1962Strategy and structure . Boston, MA: MIT Press.
13.
Charmaz, Kathy2003 'Qualitative interviewing and grounded theory analysis ' in Inside interviewing: New lenses, new concerns. James A. Holstein and F. Jaber Gubrium (eds), 311—330. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
14.
Cooper, Rachel , and Mike Press1995Design management: Managing design. Chichester: Wiley.
15.
Cross, Nigel1999'Natural intelligence in design' . Design Studies20/1: 25—39.
16.
Dumas, Angela , and Henry Mintzberg1989 ' Managing design, designing management'. DesignManagement Journal1; 37—43.
17.
Dunbar , and William Starbuck2006Learning to design organizations and learning from designing them '. Organization Science17/2: 171—178.
18.
EisenhardtKathleen, M. , 1989 ' Building theories from case study research '. Academy of Management Review14/4: 532—550.
19.
Friedman, Ken2002 'Towards an integrative design discipline' in Creating Breakthrough ideas: The collaboration of anthropologists and designers in the product development industry. Susan Squires and Bryan Byrne (eds), 199—214. London: Bergin & Gravey.
20.
Galbraith, Jay R. , 1973Organizational design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
21.
Galbraith, Jay R. , 1995Designing organizations: An executive briefing on strategy, structure and process. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
22.
Gillham, William2000Case study research methods. London : Continuum.
23.
Glaser, Barney, G. , 1978Theoretical sensitivity. Mill Valley : CA: Sociology Press .
24.
Glaser, Barney, G. , and Anselm Strauss, L.1967The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co.
25.
Gorb, Peter1986'The business of design management' . Design Studies7/2: 106—110.
26.
Goulding, Christina2002Grounded theory: A practical guide for management, business and market researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
27.
Gregory, Kathleen1983'Native-view paradigms: Multiple cultures and culture conflicts in organizations' . Administrative Science Quarterly28: 359—376.
28.
Guba, Egon G. , and Yvonna S. Lincoln1994 'Competing paradigms in qualitative research' in Handbook of Qualitative Research. N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (eds) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
29.
Hofstede, Geert2001Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
30.
Johansson, Ulla , and Lisbeth Svengren2002 ' One swallow doesn't make a summer: About the need for critical mass of designers to make a design strategy '. 11th International Forum on Design Management Research & Education, Boston, MA, 10—12 June 2002.
31.
Kelly, Tom2001The art of innovation. New York : Random Books.
32.
Kotler, Philip , and Alexander G. Rath1984 ' Design: A powerful but neglected strategic tool '. Journal of Business Strategy5/2: 16—21.
33.
Krippendorff, Klaus2006The semantic turn: A new foundation for design. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
34.
Lester, Richard K. , Michael J. Piore , and Kamal M. Malek1998 ' Interpretive management: What general managers can learn from design '. Harvard Business Review March—April 1998.
35.
Lojacono, Gabriela , and Gianfranco Zaccai2004'The evolution of the design-inspired enterprise' . Sloan Management Review45/3: 75—79.
36.
Martin, Joanne1992Cultures in Organisations: Three Perspectives. New York : Oxford University Press.
37.
Martin, Joanne , Martha S. Feldman , Mary J. Hatch , and Sim Sitkin1983 ' The uniqueness paradox in organizational stories '. Administrative Science Quarterly28: 438—453.
38.
Marzano, Stefano1999Creating value by design: Thoughts and facts. London: Lund Humphries.
39.
MeyerChristine, B. , 2001 ' A case in case study methodology '. Field Methods13/4: 329—352.
40.
MilesMatthew, B. , and A. Michael Huberman1994Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
41.
Mintzberg, Henry1998Strategy safari: A guided tour through the wilds of strategic management. Financial TimesPrentice Hall , New York.
42.
Myerson, Jeremy2001Ideo: Masters of innovation. London : Laurence King.
43.
Nadler,David, A. , and L. Michael Tushman1997Competing by design: The power of organizational architecture. New York: Oxford University Press.
44.
Nussbaum, Bruce2004 ' The power of design '. Business Week 17 May: 86—94.
45.
Olson, Eric M. , Rachel Cooper , and Stanley F. Slater1998 ' Design strategy and competitive advantage '. Business Horizons March—April.
46.
Partington, David2000'Building grounded theories of management action' . British Journal of Management11: 91—102.
47.
Peters, Tom1997The circle of innovation. London : Hodder & Stoughton.
48.
Polanyi, Michael1966The tacit dimension. Garden City, NY : Doubleday.
49.
Press, Mike , and Rachel Cooper2003The design experience: The role of design and designers in the twenty-first century. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate .
50.
Ravasi, Davide , and Gabriela Lojacono2005'Managing design and designers for strategic renewal' . Long Range Planning38: 51—77.
51.
Rich, Harry2004'Proving the practical power of design' . Design Management Journal15/4: 28—34.
52.
Romme, A. Georges L.2003 ' Making a difference: Organization as design '. Organization Science14/5: 558—573.
53.
Sacher, Heiko2002 'Semantics as common ground: Connecting the cultures of analysis and creation', in Creating breakthrough ideas: The collaboration of anthropologists and designers in the product development industry. Susan Squires and Bryan Byrne (eds), 175—196. London: Bergin & Gravey.
54.
Sackmann, Sonja1991Cultural knowledge in organizations: Exploring the collective mind. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications .
55.
Schön, Donald1983The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books .
56.
Squires, Susan , and Bryan Byrne , editors 2002Creating breakthrough ideas: The collaboration of anthropologists and designers in the product development industry. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
57.
Van Aken Joan, E. , 2004'Management research based on the paradigm of design science: The quest for field-tested and grounded technological rules' . Journal of Management Studies41/2: 219—246.
58.
Van Maanen, John , and Stephen R. Barley1984 'Occupational communities: Culture and control in organizations' in Research in organizational behavior, Vol. 6. B.M. Staw and L.L. Cummings (eds), 287—366. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
59.
Walker, David1990 'Managers and designers: Two tribes at war?' in Design management: A handbook of issues and methods. Mark Oakley (ed.), 145—154. Cambridge: Blackwell.
60.
Weick, Karl, E.2004 'Rethinking organizational design' in Managing as designing. Richard J. Boland and Fred Collopy (eds), 36—53. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
61.
Yoo, Youngjin , Richard J. Boland Jr. , and Kalle Lyytinen2006 ' From organization design to organization designing '. Organization Science17/2: 215—229.
