Japan has long been described as a dysfunctional democracy due to the limited
role of grassroots movements compared to other industrialized countries. This
paper critiques the notion of an Asian path to democracy in Japan and outlines
how industrial maturation and globalization have given rise to new forms of
Japanese social activism. The historical growth and development of
Japan’s grassroots movements is analyzed, with a focus on
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) involved in international development. The
paper examines in detail the push and pull factors behind the growth and
influence of these NGOs, and analyzes the new forms of state-society relations
that have emerged as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and NGOs begin to
collaborate. Finally, the paper assesses the significance of grassroots activism
for democratic invigoration in Japan and beyond.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allison, Garry D.1988. “Tanaka Kakuei, Structural Corruption, and the
Advent of Machine Politics in Japan.” In The Politics of
Scandal: Power and Process in Liberal Democracies, edited by
Andrei Markowits
and
Mark Silberstein.London: Holmes and Meier
.
2.
Amemiya, Takako
. 1998. “The Nonprofit Sector: Legal
Background.” In The Nonprofit Sector in Japan, edited
by
Tadashi Yamamoto.Manchester, UK and New York: Manchester
University Press
.
3.
Bowen, Roger W.2003. Japan’s Dysfunctional Democracy: The Liberal
Democratic Party and Structural Corruption.
Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe
.
4.
Brysk, Allison
. 2000.
“Democratizing Civil Society in Latin America.”Journal of Democracy11(3):
151-165
.
5.
Castells, Manuel
. 1996. The Rise of the Network Society.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell
.
6.
Castells, Manuel
. 1997. The Power of Identity.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers
.
7.
Castells, Manuel
. 1998. End of Millennium.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers
.
8.
Covey, Jane G.1998. “Is Critical Cooperation Possible? Influencing
the World Bank through Operation Collaboration and Policy
Dialogue.” In The Struggle for Accountability: The World
Bank, NGOs and Grassroots Movements, edited by
Jonathan A. Fox
and
L. David Brown.Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press
.
9.
Crozier, Michael
,
Samuel P. Huntington
, and
Joji Watanuki
. 1975. The Crisis of Democracy.
New York: New York University Press
.
10.
Curtis, Gerald L.1999. The Logic of Japanese Politics: Leaders, Institutions, and the
Limits of Change.
New York: Columbia University Press
.
11.
Diamond, Larry
. 1994.
“Rethinking Civil Society. Toward Democratic Consolidation.”Journal of Democracy5(3):
5-17
.
12.
Hirata, Keiko
. 2002. Civil Society in Japan: The Growing Role of NGOs in
Tokyo’s Aid and Development Policy.
New York: Palgrave
.
13.
Imaoka, Makoto
. 1999. “A Moderate Civil Revolution in
Japan.” In Civil Society: Japanese Experiment and American
Experience, edited by
Cynthia Sternau.New York: Japan Society
.
14.
Inglehart, Ronald
. 1997. Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural,
Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
.
15.
Inglehart, Ronald
and
Gabriela Catterberg
. 2002.
“Trends in Political Action: The Developmental Trend and the
Post-Honeymoon Decline.”International Journal of Comparative Sociology43(3-5):
300-316
.
16.
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
. 2000. “Voter Turnout from 1945 to Date,
Japan.” Accessed January 17, 2004 (http://www.idea.int/vt/region_view.cfm?CountryCode=JP).
17.
Iokibe, Makoto
. 1999. “Japan’s Civil Society: An
Historic Overview.” In Deciding the Public Good:
Governance and Civil Society in Japan, edited by
Tadashi Yamamoto.Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange
.
18.
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs
. 1999. Japan’s ODA Annual Report 1998.
Tokyo: Association for Promotion of
International Cooperation
.
19.
Japanese NGO Center for International Cooperation
. 1998. NGO Deta Bukku 1998 [NGO Data Book 1998].
Tokyo: Japanese NGO Center for International Cooperation
.
20.
Japanese NGO Center for International Cooperation
. 2002. Directory of Japanese NGOs Concerned with
International Cooperation 2002.
Tokyo: Japanese NGO Center for International Cooperation
.
21.
Johnson, Chalmers
. 1982. MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of
Industrial Policy, 1925-1975.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
.
22.
Kakuchi, Suvendrini
. 2000.
“Reformer Shakes up Japan’s Status Quo.”Asia Times, June 21. Accessed January 17, 2004 (http://www.atimes.com/japan-econ/BF21Dh01.html).
23.
Katz, Richard
. 1998. Japan the System that Soured: The Rise and Fall of the
Japanese Economic Miracle.
Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe
.
24.
Kohno, Masaru
. 1989.
“Voter Turnout and Strategic Ticket-splitting under
Japan’s New Electoral Rules.”Asian Survey29(5):
457-479
.
25.
Kumaoka, Michiya
. 1993. Kanbojia Saizensen [On the Frontline in
Cambodia].
Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten
.
26.
Lipschutz, Ronnie D.1992.
“Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society.”Millennium: Journal of International Studies21(2):
389-420
.
27.
McKean, Margaret A.1981. Environmental Protest and Citizen Politics in Japan.
Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of
California Press
.
28.
Matsui, Yaoi
. 1990. Shimin to Enjo: Ima Nani ga Dekiru ka [Citizens
and Aid: What Can Citizens Do?].
Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten
.
29.
Neher, Clark D.
and
Ross Marlay
. 1995. Democracy and Development in Southeast Asia: The Winds
of Change.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press
.
30.
Norris, Pippa
. 2002. Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political
Activism.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
31.
Nua Internet Surveys
. 2003. “How Many Online?” Accessed
February 1, 2004 (http://www.nua.ie/surveys/how_many_online/).
32.
Pekkanen, Robert
. 2003. “Molding Japanese Civil Society:
State-Structured Incentives and the Patterning of Civil
Society.” In The State of Civil Society in Japan,
edited by
Frank J. Schwartz
and
Susan J. Pharr.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
33.
Pempel, T.J.1998. Regime Shift.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
.
34.
Pharr, Susan J.2000. “Officials’ Misconduct and Public
Distrust: Japan and the Liberal Democracies.” In
Disaffected Democracies: What’s Troubling the Trilateral
Countries?, edited by
Susan J. Pharr
and
Robert D. Putnam.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
.
35.
Pharr, Susan J.
,
Robert D. Putnam
, and
Russell J. Dalton
. 2000.
“Trouble in the Advanced Democracies? A Quarter-Century of
Declining Confidence.”Journal of Democracy11(2):
5-25
.
36.
Reimann, Kim DoHyang. 2001. “Late Developers in Global Civil
Society: Domestic Barriers, International Socialization and the Emergence of
International NGOs in Japan.” PhD dissertation, Department of Government,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
37.
Rosenau, James N.1997. Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a
Turbulent World.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
38.
Saotome, Mitsuhiro
. 1999.
“Imakoso Motomerareru Oru Japan no Kokusai Kyoryoku”
[International Assistance Required of “All” Japan Today]
. Gaiko Forum127:
34-40
.
39.
Schlesinger, Jacob M.1999. Shadow Shoguns: The Rise and Fall of Japan’s Postwar
Political Machine.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
.
40.
Schreurs, Miranda A.2002. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United
States.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
41.
Schwartz, Frank J.2003. “What is Civil Society?” In
The State of Civil Society in Japan, edited by
Frank J. Schwartz
and
Susan J. Pharr.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
42.
Sikkink, Kathryn
. 1991. Ideas and Institutions: Developmentalism in Brazil and
Argentina.
Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press
.
43.
The Asahi Shimun
. 2003.
“Three Ruling Parties Win Absolute Stable Majority.”The Asahi Shimun. Accessed November 11, 2004 (http://www.asahi.com/english/politics/TKY200311110142.html).
44.
Verba, Sidney
,
Kay Schlozman
, and
Henry Brady
. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Volunteerism in American
Politics.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
.
45.
Yamamoto, Takashi
. 1999a. Deciding the Public Good: Governance and Civil
Society in Japan.
Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange
.
46.
Yamamoto, Takashi
. 1999b. “Emergence of Japan’s Civil
Society and Its Future Challenges.” In Deciding the
Public Good: Governance and Civil Society in Japan, edited by
Tadashi Yamamoto.Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange
.
47.
Yamaoka, Yoshinori
. 1999. “Recent Trends in the Non-Profit Sector
in Japan, Including Background on the New NPO Law.” In
Civil Society: Japanese Experiment and American Experience, edited by
Ruri Kawashima
and
Betty Borden.New York: Japan Society
.
