Cultural intelligence (CQ) is crucial for successful cross-cultural interactions, particularly in the context of increasing diversity and globalization. Notwithstanding the increasing research in this domain, numerous theoretical and empirical gaps remain unresolved.
Objective
This study aims to identify key conceptual frameworks and highlight unresolved research gaps, thereby informing future scholarly work and practical applications.
Methods
A systematic review of existing literature was conducted to synthesize the current understanding of cultural intelligence through a comprehensive literature analysis using the Scopus database, resulting in an initial collection of 4942 documents related to cultural intelligence. This study applied inclusion criteria to select 112 English-language publications from 2019 to 2023 that were relevant to the theme, providing a comprehensive review.
Results
The review found considerable advances in CQ conceptualization and assessment but limitations in behavioral research and context-specific measuring techniques. The methodology allows empirical studies to evaluate how CQ affects cross-cultural behaviors, such as cultural gap bridging and performance.
Conclusions
Addressing these theoretical and empirical gaps will enhance both academic understanding and practical development of CQ, facilitating more effective intercultural interactions in diverse settings. Further research should focus on developing behavioral measures, exploring contextual influences, and designing targeted interventions to cultivate CQ competencies.
AngSVan DyneL. Handbook of cultural intelligence: theory, measurement, and applications. Routledge, 2015.
2.
KiddLEimearN. Cognitive cultural intelligence. In Elgar encyclopedia of cross-cultural management. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2024, pp. 118–120.
3.
BaloghÁSzabóLGaálZ. Cultural intelligence versus organizational culture: relationship between Hungarian students’ cultural intelligence and the organizational culture of their prospective workplaces. Int J Divers Organ Commun Nations2011; 11(1): 223.
4.
JurásekMWawroszP. Trends in cultural intelligence research in the context of intercultural management. E+M Ekonomie Manag2021; 24(3):40–57.
5.
MenonSKahwajiATNarayananL. Cultural intelligence: management and business in the new millennium: critical perspective. Int J Appl Bus Econ Res2017; 15(6): 39–50.
6.
OttDLMichailovaS. Cultural intelligence: a review and new research avenues. Int J Manag Rev2018; 20(1): 99–119.
7.
TarasV. Conceptualising and measuring cultural intelligence: important unanswered questions. Eur J Int Manag2020; 14(2): 273–292.
8.
SteynRSolomonA. Cultural intelligence: concepts and definition statements. S Afr J Bus Manag2017; 48(2): 67–74.
9.
RuparelNChoubisaRSharmaK, et al.Assessing the psychometric properties of cultural intelligence scale among Indian employees. Curr Psychol2022; 41(5): 2938–2949.
10.
YariNLankutEAlonI, et al.Cultural intelligence, global mindset, and cross-cultural competencies: a systematic review using bibliometric methods. Eur J Int Manag2020; 14(2): 210–250.
11.
RosenblattVWorthleyRMacNabB. From contact to development in experiential cultural intelligence education: the mediating influence of expectancy disconfirmation. Acad Manag Learn Educ2013; 12(3): 356–379.
12.
PhanphairojK. The effect of institutional support on the cultural intelligence of nursing students. Open Nurs J2021; 15(1): 444–452.
13.
AngSVan DyneLKohC, et al.Cultural intelligence: its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation, and task performance. Manag Organ Rev2007; 3(3): 335–371.
14.
BrislinRWorthleyRMacnabB. Cultural intelligence: understanding behaviors that serve people’s goals. Group Organ Manag2006; 31(1): 40–55.
15.
ShuFMcAbeeSTAymanR. The HEXACO personality traits, cultural intelligence, and international student adjustment. Pers Indiv Differ2017; 106: 21–25.
16.
TemplerKJTayCChandrasekarNA. Motivational cultural intelligence, realistic job preview, realistic living conditions preview, and cross-cultural adjustment. Group Organ Manag2006; 31(1): 154–173.
17.
Velez-CalleARoman-CalderonJPRobledo-ArdilaC. The cross-country measurement invariance of the Business Cultural Intelligence Quotient (BCIQ). Int’l Jnl of Cross Cultural Manag2018; 18(1): 73–86.
18.
DaviesSFroeseFJChngDH, et al.Improving subsidiary performance via inpatriate assignments: the role of host country national subsidiary CEOs’ social ties and motivational cultural intelligence. J World Bus2023; 58(5): 101460.
19.
StoermerSDaviesSFroeseFJ. The influence of expatriate cultural intelligence on organizational embeddedness and knowledge sharing: the moderating effects of host country context. J Int Bus Stud2021; 52(3): 432–453.
20.
JionyMMLewTYGomD, et al.Influence of cultural intelligence and psychological capital on service quality: a study of the hotel industry in Sabah, Malaysia. Sustainability2021; 13(19): 10809.
21.
LamRCheungC. Towards an understanding of the culturally intelligent behaviour of hotel service employees. Int J Tourism Sci2018; 18(3): 202–214.
22.
LiXFengZChenSX. The impact of perceived social hospitality on destination image: the moderating effect of cultural intelligence. J Hospit Tourism Manag2023; 56: 214–228.
23.
Frías-JamilenaDMSabiote-OrtizCMMartín-SantanaJD, et al.Antecedents and consequences of cultural intelligence in tourism. J Destin Market Manag2018; 8: 350–358.
24.
LiXXieJFengZ, et al.Exploring residents’ helping and tolerant behavior through the lens of cultural intelligence. J Hospit Tourism Manag2022; 50: 232–244.
25.
PengACVan DyneLOhK. The influence of motivational cultural intelligence on cultural effectiveness based on study abroad: the moderating role of participants’ cultural identity. J Manag Educ2015; 39(5): 572–596.
26.
ButkovicABrkovicIBureticI. The role of openness and cultural intelligence in students' intention to study abroad. J Appl Res High Educ2024; 16(1): 236–245.
27.
CamargoAStormeMÇelikP. Further investigation of the relationship between cultural intelligence and expatriate career intentions. Int J Educ Vocat Guid2020; 20(1): 101–122.
28.
KadamRRaoSKareem AbdulW, et al.A comprehensive examination of antecedents of cultural intelligence amongst students: testing the moderation effect of third culture kids. Int J Educ Manag2020; 34(2): 245–262.
29.
ChedruMOstapchukM. The effect of study abroad and personality on cultural intelligence: a deeper understanding using the expanded model of cultural intelligence. Int J Intercult Relat2023; 92: 101737.
30.
McKaySLannegrandLSkuesJ, et al.International experience and cultural intelligence development: a longitudinal assessment of Australian and French exchange students. Int J Intercult Relat2022; 91: 56–69.
31.
AlonIBoulangerMElstonJA, et al.Business cultural intelligence quotient: a five-country study. Thunderbird Int Bus Rev2018; 60(3): 237–250.
32.
GroschIBoonenJHoefnagelsA. Cultural intelligence and the role of international classroom composition: insights from Dutch higher education. Int J Intercult Relat2023; 96: 101866.
33.
ParkeMRWeinhardtJMBrodskyA, et al.When daily planning improves employee performance: the importance of planning type, engagement, and interruptions. J Appl Psychol2018; 103(3): 300–312.
34.
BackmannJKanitzRTianAW, et al.Cultural gap bridging in multinational teams. J Int Bus Stud2020; 51(8): 1283–1311.
35.
Di MarcoMKTaylorJEAlinP. Emergence and role of cultural boundary spanners in global engineering project networks. J Manag Eng2010; 26(3): 123–132.
36.
EarleyPCAngS. Cultural intelligence: individual interactions across cultures. Stanford University Press, 2003.
37.
SpearmanC. The nature of “intelligence” and the principles of cognition. Macmillan, 1923.
38.
GaltonF. Inquiries into human faculty and its development. Macmillan, 1883.
39.
BinetASimonT. The development of intelligence in children. Williams Printing Company, 1980.
40.
CarrollJB. The measurement of intelligence. Handbook of Human Intelligence1982; 30: 29–120.
41.
SternbergRJDettermanDK (eds). What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Praeger, 1986.
42.
AnastasiA. Intelligence as a quality of behavior. What is intelligence1986, pp. 19–21.
43.
BaltesPBCorneliusSWSpiroANesselroadeJRWillisSL, et al.Integration versus differentiation of fluid/crytallized intelligence in old age. Developmental Psychology1980; 16(6): 625–635.
44.
BaronJ. Rationality and intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
45.
BerryJW. A cross-cultural view of intelligence. What is intelligence1986: 35–38.
46.
BrownALCampioneJC. Psychological theory and the study of learning disabilities. Am Psychol1986; 41(10): 1059–1068.
47.
ButterfieldEC. Intelligent action, learning, and cognitive development might all be explained with the same theory. What is intelligence1986: 45–49.
48.
DasJP. A better look at intelligence. Curr Dir Psychol Sci2002; 11(1): 28–33.
49.
HiserEFrancisC. Intelligence: a brief history. Doctoral dissertation. Kansai Gaidai University.
50.
SchmidtFLOhIS. Select on intelligence. Principles of Organizational Behavior: The Handbook of Evidence‐Based Management. 2023 Apr; 10: 1–25.
51.
FanikoKGrinFGhislettaP. Assessing multicultural effectiveness among young Swiss people. Swiss Journal of Psychology2014.
52.
Van DyneLAngSNgKY, et al.Sub-dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence. Soc Personal Psychol Compass2012; 6(4): 295–313.
53.
FitzsimmonsSRLiaoYThomasDC. From crossing cultures to straddling them: an empirical examination of outcomes for multicultural employees. J Int Bus Stud2017; 48(1): 63–89.
54.
MannixENealeMA. What differences make a difference? The promise and reality of diverse teams in organizations. Psychol Sci Publ Interest2005; 6(2): 31–55.
55.
MortensenMHindsPJ. Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. Int J Conflict Manag2001; 12(3): 212–238.
56.
StahlGKMaznevskiML. Unraveling the effects of cultural diversity in teams: a retrospective of research on multicultural work groups and an agenda for future research. J Int Bus Stud2021; 52(1): 4–22.
57.
GelfandMJErezMAycanZ. Cross-cultural organizational behavior. Annu Rev Psychol2007; 58(1): 479–514.
58.
GozzoliCGazzaroliD. The cultural intelligence scale (CQS): a contribution to the Italian validation. Front Psychol2018; 9: 1183.
59.
MarquisCBattilanaJ. Acting globally but thinking locally? The enduring influence of local communities on organizations. Res Organ Behav2009; 29: 283–302.
60.
PookLAFüstösJ. Information sharing by management: some cross-cultural results. Hum Syst Manag1999; 18(1): 9–22.
61.
HongHJ. Bicultural competence and its impact on team effectiveness. Int’l Jnl of Cross Cultural Manag2010; 10(1): 93–120.
62.
Barner-RasmussenWEhrnroothMKoveshnikovA, et al.Cultural and language skills as resources for boundary spanning within the MNC. J Int Bus Stud2014; 45(7): 886–905.
63.
ButlerCLZanderLMockaitisA, et al.The global leader as boundary spanner, bridge maker, and blender. Ind Organ Psychol2012; 5(2): 240–243.
64.
EisenbergJMattarelliE. Building bridges in global virtual teams: the role of multicultural brokers in overcoming the negative effects of identity threats on knowledge sharing across subgroups. J Int Manag2017; 23(4): 399–411.
65.
HundschellABackmannJTianAW, et al.Leaders’ cultural gap bridging behaviors and subordinates' work engagement in multinational teams. J Int Manag2022; 28(3): 100916.
66.
JahaniHAbbasiBSheuJB, et al.Supply chain network design with financial considerations: a comprehensive review. Eur J Oper Res2024; 312(3): 799–839.
67.
El MohadabMBouikhaleneBSafiS. Bibliometric method for mapping the state of the art of scientific production in Covid-19. Chaos Solitons Fractals2020; 139: 110052.
68.
MilesD. Research methods and strategies workshop: a taxonomy of research gaps: identifying and defining the seven research gaps. Journal of Research Methods and Strategies2017; 1: 1–08.
69.
AlonIBoulangerMMeyersJ, et al.The development and validation of the business cultural intelligence quotient. Cross Cult Strateg Manag2016; 23(1): 78–100.
