A total of 55 preterm children born at low to moderate risk and a comparison group of
100 healthy fullterm children were studied until they reached 8 years of age.
Perinatal biomedical data and environmental data were considered as potential
contributors to developmental outcome. The Budapest Binet intelligence quotients
(IQs) were used as outcome measures. The mean IQs for both groups fell within the
normal range at each measurement point. However, the differential patterns of IQ
development in the preterm and term group underscore the significance of the age
variable. Instead of a gradually declining impact of prematurity, the age effect
resulted in a complex pattern. The considerable intra-group variability within the
preterm group and the correlates of outcome suggest that biological hazards related
to birth may have subtle long-term influences. Variables tapping the quality of home
environment, however, clearly outweighed the perinatal risk factors in their ability
to predict long-term outcomes. The results suggest a transaction between the two
spheres of contributing factors. Long-term follow-up studies with multiple
measurement points are essential if we are to understand the developmental
implications of premature birth.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Achenbach, T.M.
,
Phares, V.
,
Howell, C.T.
,
Rauh, V.A.
, &
Nurcombe, B.
(1990).
Seven-Year outcome of the Vermont Intervention Program for Low-Birthweight Infants
. Child Development, 61,
1672-1681
.
2.
Appelbaum, M.I.
, &
McCall, R.B.
(1983). Design and analysis in developmental
psychology. In
P.M. Mussen
(Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. I, pp.
415-476).
New York: Wiley
.
3.
Aylward, G.P.
(1990).
Environmental influences on the developmental outcome of children at risk
. Infants and Young Children, 2,
1-9
.
4.
Aylward, G.P.
,
Pfeiffer, S.I.
,
Wright, A.
, &
Verhulst, S.J.
(1989).
Outcome studies of low-birthweight infants published in the last decade: A metaanalysis
. Journal of Pediatrics, 115,
515-520
.
5.
Bakeman, R.
, &
Brown, J.
(1980).
Early interaction: Consequences for social and mental development at three years
. Child Development, 51,
437-447
.
6.
Baldwin, A.L.
,
Kalhorn, J.
, &
Breese, F.H.
(1945).
Patterns of parent behavior
. Psychology Monographs, 58, No. 5.
7.
Barsky, V.E.
, &
Siegel, L.S.
(1993). Predicting future cognitive, academic and
behavioral outcomes for very low birth weight (< 1500 grams)
infants. In
S.L. Friedman
&
M.D. Sigman
(Eds.), The psychological development of low birthweight children.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex
.
8.
Baumrind, D.
(1971).
Current patterns of parental authority
. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4, Part 2.
9.
Beckwith, L.
, &
Cohen, S.E.
(1984). Home environment and cognitive competence in
preterm children during the first 5 years. In
A.W. Gottfried
(Ed.), Home environment and early cognitive development: Longitudinal
research (pp. 235-271).
New York: Academic Press
.
10.
Beckwith, L.
, &
Cohen, S.E.
(1987).
Social interaction with the parent during infancy and later intellectual
competence in children born preterm
. Early Child Development and Care, 27,
239-254
.
11.
Beckwith, L.
, &
Parmelee, A.H.
(1986).
EEG patterns of preterm infants, home environment, and later IQ
. Child Development, 57,
777-789
.
12.
Beckwith, L.
, &
Rodning, C.
(1991). Intellectual functioning of children born
preterm. In
L. Okagaki
&
R.J. Sternberg
(Eds.), Directors of development: Influences on the development of
children's thinking (pp. 25-58).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
13.
Bill, J.M.
,
Sykes, D.H.
, &
Hoy, E.A.
(1986).
Difficulties in comparing outcomes of low-birthweight studies because of
obsolescent test norms
. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 28,
244-250
.
14.
Brachfeld, S.
,
Goldberg, S.
, &
Sloman,J.
(1980).
Parent-infant interaction in freeplay at 8 and 12 months: Effects of
prematurity and immaturity
. Infant Behavior and Development, 3,
289-305
.
15.
Bradley, R.H.
(1989). The use of the Home inventory in longitudinal
studies of child development. In
M.H. Bornstein
&
N.A. Krasnegor
(Eds.), Stability and continuity in mental development.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
16.
Bradley, R.H.
,
Caldwell, B.M.
, &
Rock, S.L.
(1988).
Home environment and school performance: A 10-year follow-up and
examination of three models of environmental action
. Child Development, 59,
852-867
.
17.
Bradley, R.
,
Caldwell, B.M.
,
Rock, S.L.
,
Cases, P.M.
, &
Nelson, S.
(1987).
The early development of low-birthweight infants: relationship to health,
family status, family context, family processes, and parenting
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
10,
301-318
.
18.
Brazelton, T.B.
(1982). Early intervention: what does it mean? In
H.M. Fitzgerald
,
B.M. Lester
, &
M.W. Yogman
(Eds.), Theory and research in behavioral pediatrics.
New York: Plenum
.
19.
Broman, S.
(1984). The collaborative perinatal project: an
overview. In
S.A. Mednick
,
M. Harway, M.
, &
K.M. Finello
(Eds.), Handbook of longitudinal research (Vol. 1).
New York: Praeger
.
20.
Brown, J.W.
, &
Bakeman, R.
(1980). Relationship of human mothers with their infants
during the first year of life: Effect of prematurity. In
R.W. Bell
&
W.P. Smotherman
(Eds.), Maternal influence and early behavior.
Jamaica, NY: Spectrum
.
21.
Caldwell, B.
, &
Bradley, R.
(1984). Home Observation for Measurement of
Environment.
Little Rock, AR: University of Arkansas Press
.
22.
Caputo, D.V.
,
Goldstein, K.M.
, &
Taub, H.B.
(1981). Neonatal compromise and later psychological
development: A 10-year longitudinal study. In
S.L. Friedman
&
M. Sigman
(Eds.), Preterm birth and psychological development (pp.
98-100).
New York: Academic Press
.
23.
Cattel, P.
(1931).
Constant changes in the Stanford-Binet IQ
. Journal of Educational Psychology, 22,
544-550
. (Cited in McCall, Appelbaum, & Hogarty, 1973)
Cohen, S.E.
,
Parmelee, A.H.
,
Beckwith, L.
, &
Sigman, M.
(1986).
Cognitive development in preterm infants: birth to 8 years
. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics,
7,
102-110
.
26.
Cohen, S.E.
,
Parmelee, A.H.
,
Beckwith, L.
, &
Sigman, M.
(1992). Biological and social precursors of a 12 year
competence in children born preterm. In
C.W. Greenbaum
&
J.G. Auerbach
(Eds.), Longitudinal studies of children at psychological risk: Cross
national perspectives.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex
.
27.
Dale, P.S.
,
Greenberg, M.T.
, &
Crnic, K.A.
(1987). The multiple determinants of symbolic development:
Evidence from preterm children. In
D. Ciccetti
&
M. Beeghly
(Eds.), Symbolic development in atypical children. New directions for
child development (No. 36, pp. 69-86).
San Francisco, Jossey-Bass
.
28.
Deutsch, C.P.
(1973). Social class and child development. In
B.M. Caldwell
&
H. Riccuti
(Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 3).
Chicago: University of Chicago Press
.
29.
DittrichovA, J.
,
Mandys, F.
,
Paul, K.
,
SobotkovA, D.
,
TautermannovA, M.
,
Vondracek, J.
, &
ZezulAkovA, J.
(1991).
Relations of early behavior to later developmental outcome in preterm infants
. Paper presented at the XIth Biennial Meetings of ISSBD, Minneapolis.
30.
Drillien, C.M.
(1964). The growth and development of the prematurely born
infant.
Edinburgh: Livingstone
.
31.
Drillien, C.M.
,
Thomson, A.S.M.
, &
Burgoyne, K.
(1980).
Low-birthweight children at early school age: A longitudinal study
. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 22,
26-47
.
32.
Elardo, R.
, &
Bradley, R.H.
(1981).
The Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) scale: A
review of research
. Developmental Review, 1,
113-145
.
33.
Fawer, C.L.
, &
Calame, A.
(1991).
Significance of ultrasound appearances in the neurological development and
cognitive abilities of preterm infants at 5 years
. European Journal of Pediatrics, 150,
515-520
.
34.
Field, T.M.
(1979). Interaction patterns of preterm and term
infants. In
T.M. Field
(Ed.), Infants born at risk.
Jamaica, NY: Spectrum
.
35.
Field, T.M.
,
Walden, T.
,
Widmayer, S.
, &
Greenberg, R.
(1982). The early development of preterm, discordant twin
pairs: Bigger is not always better. In
L.P. Litsitt
&
T.M. Field
(Eds.), Infant behaviour and development: Perinatal risk and newborn
behavior (pp. 153-163).
Norwood, NJ: Ablex
.
36.
Flynn, J.R.
(1987).
Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure
. Psychological Bulletin, 101,
171-191
.
37.
Gordon, B.M.
, &
Jens, K.G.
(1988).
A conceptual model for tracking high-risk infants and making early service decisions
. Journal of Behavioral and Developmental Pediatrics,
9,
279-286
.
38.
Greenberg, M.T.
, &
Crnic, K.A.
(1988).
Longitudinal predictors of developmental status and social interaction in
premature and full-term infants at age two
. Child Development, 59,
554-570
.
39.
Grigoroiu-Serbánescu, M.
(1984).
Intellectual and emotional development and school adjustment in preterm
children at 6 and 7 years of age
. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
7,
307-320
.
40.
Hadders-Algra, M.
,
Huisjes, H.J.
, &
Touwen, B.C.L.
(1988).
Perinatal risk factors and minor neurological dysfunction: significance for
behaviour and school achievement at nine years
. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 30,
482-491
.
41.
Haskins, R.
(1986). Social and cultural factors in risk assessment and
mild mental retardation. In
D.C. Farran
&
J.D. McKinney
(Eds.), Risk in intellectual and psychosocial development (pp.
29-60).
Orlando, FL: Academic Press
.
42.
Hertzog, C.
, &
Rovine, M.
(1985).
Repeated-measures analysis of variance in developmental research: selected issues
. Child Development, 56,
787-809
.
43.
Holmes, D.L.
,
Reich, J.N.
, &
Gyurke, J.S.
(1989).
The development of high-risk infants in low-risk families
. Applied Developmental Psychology, 3,
81-137
.
44.
Holmes, D.L.
,
Reich, J.N.
, &
Pasternak, J.F.
(1984). The development of infants born at risk.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
45.
Holverda-Kuipers, J.
(1987).
The cognitive development of low-birthweight children
. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28,
321-328
.
46.
Hoy, E.A.
,
Bill, J.M.
, &
Sykes, D.H.
(1988).
Very low birthweight: A long-term developmental impairment?International Journal of Behavioral Development, 11,
37-67
.
47.
Hung, J.V.
(1981). Predicting intellectual disorders in childhood for
preterm infants with birthweights below 1501 gm. In
S.L. Friedman
&
M. Sigman
(Eds.), Preterm birth and psychological development.
New York: Academic Press
.
48.
Hunt, J.V.
,
Cooper, B.A.B.
, &
Tooley, W.H.
(1988).
Very low birthweight infants at 8 and 11 years of age: role of neonatal
illness and family status
. Pediatrics, 82,
596-603
.
49.
Hunt, J.V.
,
Tooley, W.H.
, &
Harvin, D.
(1982).
Learning disabilities in children with birth weights < 1500 grams
. Seminars in Perinatology, 6,
280-287
.
50.
Jens, K.G.
, &
Gordon, B.N.
(1991).
Understanding risk: Implications for tracking high-risk infants and making
early service delivery decisions
. International Journal of Disability, Development and
Education, 38,
211-224
.
51.
Joubert, K.
(1983). Sztiletdsi silly ds sztiletdsi hossz standard az
1973-78 dvben dlveszilletett djsztildttek adatai alapján (Birthweight
and length chart based on the data of live births in 1973-78).
Demografia, 107-139.
52.
Kalmfir M.
, &
Boronkai,J.
(1991).
Interplay of biological and social-environmental factors in the
developmental outcome of prematurely born children from infancy to seven years
. International Journal of Disability, Development and
Education, 38,
247-270
.
53.
KalmAr, M.
,
HarkAnyi, A.
, &
Boronkai, J.
(1992).
Mothers' retrospections of premature childbirth
. Resources in Education. ERIC ED 343 669,
1-10
.
54.
Klein, N.
,
Hack, M.
,
Gallagher, J.
, &
Fanaroff, A.
(1985).
Preschool performance of children with normal intelligence who were very
low-birthweight infants
. Pediatrics, 75,
531-537
.
55.
Kopp, C.B.
(1983). Risk factors in development. In
P.H. Mussen
(Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. II, pp.
1081-1188).
New York: Wiley
.
56.
Kopp, C.B.
(1990).
Risks in infancy: Appraising the research
. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 36,
117-140
.
57.
Lamb, M.E.
, &
Baumrind, D.
(1978). Socialization and personality development in the
preschool years. In
M.E. Lamb
(Ed.), Social and personality development.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston
.
58.
Largo, R.H.
,
Pfister, D.
,
Molinari, L.
,
Kundu, S.
,
Lipp, A.
, &
Duc, G.
(1989).
Significance of prenatal, perinatal and postnatal factors in the
development of AGA preterm infants at five to seven years
. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 31,
440-456
.
59.
Lautrey, J.
(1988).
Structuration de l'environment familial et developpement cognitif: quoi de neuf?Bulletin de Psychologie, XLII,
47-56
.
60.
Lee, V.E.
,
Brooks-Gunn, J.
,
Schnur, E.
, &
Liaw, F.R.
(1990).
Are head start effects sustained? A longitudinal follow-up comparison of
disadvantaged children attending head start, no preschool, and other
preschool programs
. Child Development, 61,
495-507
.
61.
Lenart, E.
, &
Baranyai, E.
(1972). A budapesti Binet-tipusut ertelmi fejl6ddsi
vizsgdlat (The Budapest revision of the Binet test of mental
development). In
Tunkli L.
(Ed.), Tanulmanyok a nevelesi tandcsadds korebol.
Budapest: Fovarosi Tanacs
.
62.
Leonard, C.H.
,
Clyman, R.I.
,
Piecuch, R.E.
,
Juster, R.P.
,
Ballard, R.A.
, &
Behle, M.B.
(1990).
Effect of medical and social risk factors on outcome of prematurity and
very low-birthweight
. Journal of Pediatrics, 116,
620-626
.
63.
Lindgren, S.D.
,
Harper, D.C.
, &
Blackman, S.A.
(1986).
Environmental influences and perinatal risk factors in high-risk children
. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 11,
531-547
.
64.
Littmann, B.
, &
Parmelee, A.H.
(1978).
Medical correlates of infant development
. Pediatrics, 61,
470-474
.
65.
Loehlin, J.C.
,
Horn, J.M.
, &
Willerman, L.
(1989).
Modeling IQ change: evidence from the Texas adoption project
. Child Development, 60,
993-1004
.
66.
Lynn, R.
,
Hampson, S.L.
, &
Mullineux, J.C.
(1987).
A long-term increase in the fluid intelligence of English children
. Nature, 328,
797-797
.
67.
Macey, T.J.
,
Harmon, R.J.
, &
Easterbrooks, M.A.
(1987).
Impact of premature birth on the development of the infant in the family
. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55,
846-852
.
68.
McCall, R.B.
(1976). Toward an epigenetic conception of mental
development in the first three years of life. In
M. Lewis
(Ed.), Origins of intelligence.
New York: Plenum
.
Meisels, S.J.
, &
Plunkett, J.W.
(1988). Developmental consequences of preterm birth: Are
there long-term effects? In
P.B. Baltes
,
D.L. Featherman
, &
R.M. Lerner
(Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 9).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
71.
Meyer-Probst, B.
,
Teichmann, H.
,
Hayes, A.
, &
Rauh, H.
(1991).
Follow-up of a cohort of risk children into adolescence. The Rostock
longitudinal study
. International Journal of Disability, Development and
Education, 38,
225-246
.
72.
Minde, K.
(1990).
The long-term impact of prematurity on the family
. Ab Initio, 2,
1-3
.
73.
Minde, K.
,
Perrotta, M.
, &
Marton, P.
(1985).
Maternal caretaking and play with full-term and premature infants
. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26,
231-244
.
74.
Mohay, H.
,
O'Callaghan, M.
,
Burns, M.
, &
Tudehope, D.
(1988).
School achievements, behavioural adjustments and health at nine years of
age in a population of infants who were born preterm or required prolonged
mechanical ventilation
. Paper presented at the Australian Developmental
Conference, Sydney.
75.
Moos, R.
(1974). Family environment scale.
Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press
.
76.
Neligan, G.A.
,
Kolvin, J.
,
Scott, D.
, &
Garside, R.F.
(1976). Born too soon or born too small: A follow-up study to
seven years of age.
London: Heinemann
.
77.
Parkinson, C.E.
,
Scrivener, R.
,
Graves, L.
,
Bunton, J.
, &
Harvey, D.
(1986).
Behavioural differences of school-age children who were small-for-dates babies
. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 28,
498-505
.
78.
Pederson, D.R.
,
Bento, S.
,
Chance, G.W.
,
Evans, B.
, &
Fox, A.M.
(1987).
Maternal emotional responses to preterm birth
. American Journal of Ortopsychiatry, 57,
15-21
.
79.
Pederson, D.R.
,
Evans, B.
,
Chance, G.W.
,
Bento, S.
, &
Fox, A.M.
(1986).
Stress resistant low-birthweight infants
. Paper presented at the International Association for Infant
Mental Health Conference, Chicago.
80.
Perrin, E.E.
,
West, P.D.
, &
Culley, B.S.
(1989).
Is my child normal yet? Correlates of vulnerability
. Pediatrics, 83,
355-363
.
81.
Rauh, H.
(1989).
The meaning of risk and protective factors in infancy
. European Journal of Psychology of Education, IV,
161-173
.
82.
Robertson, C.M.T.
,
Etches, P.C.
,
Goldson, E.
, &
Kyle, J.M.
(1992).
Eight-year-school performance, neurodevelopmental, and growth outcome of
neonates with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: A comparative study
. Pediatrics, 89,
365-372
.
83.
Robertson, C.M.T.
,
Etches, P.C.
, &
Kyle, J.M.
(1990).
Eight-year school performance and growth of preterm, small for gestational
age infants
. Journal of Pediatrics, 116,
19-16
.
84.
Rose, S.A.
,
Feldman, J.F.
,
Wallace, I.F.
, &
McCarton, C.
, 1991;
Information processing at I year: Relation to birth status and
developmental outcome during the first 5 years
. Developmental Psychology, 27,
723-737
.
85.
Ross, G.
(1985).
Use of the Bayley scales to characterize abilities of premature infants
. Child Development, 56,
835-842
.
86.
Ross, G.
,
Lipper, E.G.
, &
Auld, P.A.M.
(1991).
Educational status and school-related abilities of very low birthweight
premature children
. Pediatrics, 88,
1125-1134
.
87.
Sameroff, A.J.
(1982). The environmental context of developmental
disabilities. In
D. Bricker
(Ed.), Intervention with at risk and handicapped infants.
Baltimore: University Park Press
.
88.
Sameroff, A.J.
(1986).
Environmental context of child development
. Journal of Pediatrics, 109,
102-200
.
89.
Sameroff, A.J.
, &
Fiese, B.H.
(1990). Transactional regulation and early
intervention. In
S.J. Meisels
&
J.P. Shonkoff
(Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp.
119-149).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
90.
Schaefer, E.S.
, &
Bell, R.Q.
(1958).
Development of a parental research instrument
. Child Development, 29,
339-361
.
91.
Sears, R.R.
,
Maccoby, E.E.
, &
Levin, H.
(1957). Patterns of child rearing.
Evanston IL: Row, Peterson
.
92.
Siegel, L.S.
(1982).
Reproductive, perinatal, and environmental factors as predictors of the
cognitive and language development of preterm and full-term infants
. Child Development, 55,
963-975
.
93.
Siegel, L.S.
(1984). Home environmental influences on cognitive
development in preterm and full-term children during the first 5 years.
In
A.W. Gottfried
(Ed.), Home environment and early cognitive development.
New York: Academic Press
.
94.
Siegel, L.S.
(1985a). Biological and environmental variables as
predictors of intellectual functioning at 6 years of age. In
S. Harel
&
N.J. Anastasiow
(Eds.), The at-risk infant: psycho/sociolmedical aspects.
Baltimore, MD: P.H. Brookes
.
95.
Siegel, L.S.
(1985b). A risk index to predict learning problems in
preterm and fullterm children. In
W.K. Frankenburg
,
R.N. Emde
, &
J.W. Sullivan
(Eds.), Early identification of children at-risk: An international
perspective (pp. 231-244).
New York: Plenum
.
96.
Sigel, I.E.
(1982). The relationship between parental distancing
strategies and the child's cognitive behavior. In
L.M. Laosa
&
I.E. Sigel
(Eds.), Families as learning environments for children.
New York: Plenum
.
97.
Sigman, M.
,
Cohen, S.E.
,
Beckwith, L.
, &
Parmelee, A.H.
(1981).
Social and familial influences on the development of preterm infants
. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 6,
1-13
.
98.
Sigman, M.
, &
Parmelee, A.H.
(1979). Longitudinal evaluation of the preterm
infant. In
T. Field
,
A.M. Sostek
,
S. Goldberg
, &
H.H. Schuman
(Eds.), Infants born at risk.
Jamaica, NY: Spectrum
.
99.
Smith, L.
,
Smorvik, D.
,
Sommer, F.F.
, &
von Tetzchner, S.
(1982).
A longitudinal study of low-birthweight children: Reproductive, perinatal,
and environmental precursors of developmental status at three years of age
. Seminars in Perinatology, 6,
294-304
.
100.
Stevenson, M.B.
(1988).
Mother-infant interaction: Low-birthweight prematurely born infants
. Paper presented at the 3rd European Conference on Development
Psychology, Budapest.
101.
Stevenson, M.B.
,
Roach, M.A.
, &
Leavitt, L.A.
(1991).
Early channels of mother-infant communication: Preterm and term infants
. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines.
102.
Stevenson, M.B.
,
Roach, M.A.
,
Ver Hoeve, J.N.
, &
Leavitt, L.A.
(1990).
Rhythms in the dialogue of infant feeding: Preterm and term infants
. Infant Behavior and Development, 13,
51-70
.
103.
Vohr, B.R.
, &
Garcia-Coll, C.T.
(1988). Follow-up studies of high-risk low-birthweight
infants: Changing trends. In
H.E. Fitzgerald
,
B.M. Lester
, &
M.W. Yogman
(Eds.), Theory and research in behavioral pediatrics (Vol. 4).
Plenum: New York
.
104.
Werner, E.E.
, (1986). A longitudinal study of perinatal risk.
In
D.C. Farran
&
J.D. McKiney
(Eds.), Risk in intellectual and social development (pp.
3-27).
New York: Academic Press
.
105.
Werner, E.E.
(1990). Protective factors and individual
resilience. In
S.J. Meisels
&
J.P. Shonkoff
(Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
.
106.
Werner, E.E.
,
Bierman, J.M.
, &
French, F.E.
(1971). The children of Kauai: A longitudinal study from the
prenatal period to age ten.
Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii
.
107.
Werner, E.E.
, &
Smith, R.S.
(1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of
resilient children and youth.
New York: McGraw Hill
.
108.
White, K.R.
(1982).
The relation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement
. Psychological Bulletin, 91,
461-481
.
