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Abstract

Vygotsky and Luria suggested that the higher forms of conscious activity are accomplished with the support of culturally elaborated systems of signs. These systems of signs are viewed as symbolic tools, by analogy with technical tools, and like the latter shape human activity. The aim of this paper is to explore two alternative hypotheses about the nature of the effect of symbolic systems on psychological functions. The first hypothesis maintains that culturally elaborated systems of signs affect psychological functioning in a general way. It leads, for example, to the prediction of a "great divide" between literates and nonliterates. The second hypothesis holds that systems of signs have specific effects on the organisation of human activity when these systems are used to support skilled action but no generalised effect is predicted. This second hypothesis leads to the prediction of withinindividual differences as a function of the use of different symbolic systems, a prediction inconsistent with the first hypothesis. Some examples of research carried out to investigate these hypotheses are described in this paper. Empirical support for the second but not the first hypothesis is found in the research reviewed here.

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Cognitive Invariants and Cultural Variation in Mathematical Concepts

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