This paper attempts to describe links between the transactional or dialectical and
the mechanistic models of development and to provide a rationale for why both types
are useful. Examples of data sets, deriving principally from the early experience
literature, are provided which conform to both, and it is concluded that the
applicability of the model for describing behavioral development is strongly
influenced by where the individual stands on three empirical dimensions: (1) the
relative power of the environments that the individual is exposed to; (2) the
plasticity of the individual's behavior; and (3) the deviation of the individual
from developmental norms. These factors crucially affect the degree of reciprocity
found in organism-environment interactions, and the results suggest that differences
between developmental models are reconcilable.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aslin, R.N.
, 1981. 'Experiential influences and sensitive periods in
perceptual development: a unified model'. In:
R. Aslin
,
E. Alberts
and
B. Petersen
(eds.), Development of perception.
New York: Academic Press
.
2.
Barkley, R.
and
C. Cunningham
, 1979.
The effects of ritalin on the mother-child interactions of hyperactive children
. Archives of General Psychiatry36,
201-208
.
3.
Barrett, D.E.
,
M. Radke-Yarrow
and
R.E. Klein
, 1982.
Chronic malnutrition and child behavior: effects of early caloric
supplementation on social and emotional functioning at school age
. Developmental Psychology18,
541-556
.
4.
Bronfenbrenner, U.
, 1979. The ecology of human development.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
.
5.
Chess, S.
and
A. Thomas
, 1984. Origins and evolution of behavior disorders.
New York: Brunner/Mazel
.
6.
Clarke, A.B.D.
and
A.M. Clarke
, 1976. Early experience: myth and evidence.
New York: Free Press
.
7.
Curtiss, S.
, 1978. Genie: a study of a modern day wild child.
New York: Academic Press
.
8.
Dasen, P.
, 1982. 'Piagetian psychology: cross-cultural
contributions'. In:
H. Triandis
(ed.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology, Vol. 4.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon
.
9.
Dennis, W.
, 1973. Children of the creche.
New York: Appleton
.
10.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I.
, 1975. Ethology: the biology of behavior.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
.
11.
Elder, G.
, 1974. Children of the Great Depression.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
12.
Fisher, A.E., 1955. The effects of differential early treatment on the social
and exploratory behavior of puppies. Ph.D. Dissertation, Pennsylvania State University.
13.
Fox, M.L.
, 1971. Integrative development of brain and behavior in the
dog.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
14.
Gluck, J.P.
,
H.F. Harlow
and
K.A. Schlitz
, 1973.
Differential effect of early enrichment and deprivation in the rhesus
monkey (Maccaca mulatta)
. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology84,
598-604
.
15.
Goldberg, S.
, 1978.
Premature birth: consequences for the parent-infant relationship
. American Scientist67,
225-242
.
16.
Gottlieb, G.
, 1976. 'The roles of early experience in the development
of behavior and the nervous system'. In:
G. Gottlieb
(ed.), Studies in the development of behavior and the nervous
system, Vol. 3.
New York: Academic Press
.
17.
Hultsch, D.F.
and
T. Hickey
, 1978.
External validity in the study of human development: theoretical and
methodological issues
. Human Development21,
76-91
.
18.
Hultsch, D.F.
and
J.K. Plemons
, 1979. 'Life events and life-span development'.
In:
P. Baltes
and
O. Brim
(eds.), Life-span development and behavior, Vol. 1.
New York: Academic Press
.
19.
Immelmann, K.
and
S. Suomi
, 1982. 'Sensitive phases in development'. In:
K. Immelmann
,
G. Barlow
,
L. Petrinovitch
and
M. Main
(eds.), Behavioral development.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
20.
Kagan, J.
and
R. Klein
, 1973.
Cross-cultural perspectives in early development
. American Psychologist28,
947-961
.
21.
Koluchova, J.
, 1972.
Severe deprivation in twins
. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry13,
107-114
.
22.
Koluchova, J.
, 1976. 'A report on the further development of twins after
severe and prolonged deprivation'. In:
A.M. Clarke
and
A.B.D. Clarke
(eds.), Early experience: myth and evidence.
New York: Free Press
.
23.
Kuhn, T.S.
, 1969. The structure of scientific revolutions, 2nd ed.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
24.
Lerner, R.M.
, 1968.
Nature, nurture, and dynamic interactionism
. Human Development21,
1-20
.
25.
Lerner, R.M.
, 1980.
Concepts of epigenesis: descriptive and explanatory issues
. Human Development23,
63-72
.
26.
Lerner, R.M.
, 1984. On the nature of human plasticity.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
.
27.
Lerner, R.
and
N. Busch-Rossnagel
(eds.), 1981. Individuals as producers of their
development.
New York: Academic Press
.
28.
Lerner, R.M.
and
M.B. Kauffman
, 1985.
The concept of development in contextualism
. Developmental Review5,
309-333
.
29.
Lerner, R.M.
and
C.D. Ryff
, 1978. 'Implementation of the life-span view of human
development: the sample case of attachment'. In:
P. Baltes
(ed.), Life-span development and behavior, Vol. 1.
New York: Academic Press
.
30.
Looft, W.R.
, 1973. 'Socialization and personality development
throughout the life span: an examination of contemporary psychological
approaches'. In:
P. Baltes
and
W. Schaie
(eds.), Life-span developmental psychology.
New York: Academic Press
.
31.
McCall, R.B.
, 1981.
Nature-nurture and the two realms of development: a proposed integration
with respect to mental development
. Child Development52,
1-12
.
32.
Maccoby, E.
and
J. Martin
, 1983. 'Socialization in the context of the family:
parent-child interaction'. In:
M. Hetherington
(ed.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 4,
New York: Wiley
.
33.
MacDonald, K.
, 1984.
An ethological-social learning theory of the development of human altruism:
implications for human sociobiology
. Ethology and Sociobiology5,
97-109
.
34.
MacDonald, K.
, 1985.
Early experience, relative plasticity and social development
. Developmental Review5,
99-121
.
35.
MacDonald, K.
, 1986.
Early experience, relative plasticity and cognitive development
. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology (in press).
36.
MacDonald, K.
and
B.E. Ginsburg
, 1981.
Induction of normal behavior in wolves with restricted rearing
. Behavioral and Neural Biology33,
133-162
.
37.
Mitchell, D.E.1981. 'Sensitive periods in visual development'. In:
R. Aslin
,
E. Alberts
and
B. Petersen
(eds.), Development of perception.
New York: Academic Press
.
38.
Novak, M.
, 1979.
Social recovery of monkeys isolated for the first year of life: II.
Long-term assessment
. Developmental Psychology15,
50-61
.
39.
Novak, M.
and
H.F. Harlow
, 1975.
Social recovery of monkeys isolated for the first year of life: I.
Rehabilitation and therapy
. Developmental Psychology11,
453-465
.
40.
Overton, W.F.
, 1984. 'World views and their influence on psychological
theory and research: Kuhn-Lakatos-Lauden'. In:
H. Reese
(ed.), Advances in child development and behavior, Vol. 18.
New York: Academic Press
.
41.
Overton, W.F.
and
H.W. Reese
, 1973. 'Models of development: methodological
implications'. In:
J. Nesselroade
and
H. Reese
(eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: methodological issues.
New York: Academic Press
.
42.
Parke, R.D.
and
C.W. Collmer
, 1975. 'Child abuse: an interdisciplinary
analysis'. In:
M. Hetherington
(ed.), Review of child development research, Vol. 5.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
43.
Reese, H.W.
and
W.F. Overton
, 1970. 'Models of development and theories of
development'. In:
R. Goulet
and
P. Baltes
(eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: research and theory.
New York: Academic Press
.
44.
Richardson, S.A.
, 1976.
The relation of severe malnutrition in infancy to the intelligence of
school children with differing life histories
. Pediatric Research10,
57-61
.
45.
Riegel, K.F.
, 1976.
The dialectics of human development
. American Psychologist31,
689-700
.
46.
Rutter, M.
, 1980.
The long-term effects of early experience
. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology22,
800-815
.
47.
Sameroff, A.J.
, 1975.
Early influences: fact or fancy?Merrill-Palmer Quarterly20,
275-301
.
48.
Scarr, S.
, 1976. 'An evolutionary perspective on infant
intelligence: species patterns and individual variations'. In:
M. Lewis
(ed.), The origins of infant intelligence.
Cambridge: Plenum Press
.
49.
Scarr, S.
and
K. McCartney
, 1983.
How people make their own environments: a theory of genotype-environment effects
. Child Development54,
424-435
.
50.
Scarr, S.
and
R.A. Weinberg
, 1976.
IQ test performance of Black children adopted by White families
. American Psychologist31,
726-739
.
51.
Scarr, S.
and
R.A. Weinberg
, 1978.
The influence of 'family background' on intellectual attainment
. American Sociological Review43,
674-692
.
52.
Schiff, M.
,
M. Duyme
,
A. Dumaret
and
S. Tomkiewicz
, 1982.
How much could we boost scholastic achievement and IQ scores?Cognition12,
165-196
.
53.
Skuse, D.
, 1984a.
Extreme deprivation in early childhood I
. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry25,
523-542
.
54.
Skuse, D.
, 1984b.
Extreme deprivation in early childhood II
. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry25,
543-572
.
55.
Thomas, A.
and
S. Chess
, 1981. 'The role of temperament in the contributions of
individuals to their development'. In:
R. Lerner
and
N. Busch-Rossnagel
(eds.), Individuals as producers of their development.
New York: Academic Press
.
56.
Tizard, B.
, 1978. Adoption: a second chance.
New York: Free Press
.
57.
Wachs, T.
and
G.E. Gruen
, 1982. Early experience and human development.
New York: Plenum
.
58.
Winick, M.M.
,
K.K. Meyer
and
R.C. Harris
, 1975.
Malnutrition and environmental enrichment by adoption
. Science190,
1173-1175
.
