Empirical studies dealing with the relationship between maternal emotionality during
pregnancy and reproductive outcome are critically reviewed. In general, the results
of the studies reviewed support the notion of a relationship between maternal
emotionality and reproductive outcome. The most methodologically acceptable studies
were those linking the emotional state of the expectant mother to habitual abortion,
hyperemesis gravidarum, toxemia, deviant infant behavior, and a variety of pregnancy
and birth complications. Anxiety is the emotional condition most often studied and
implicated in reproductive complications. However, the available data do not permit
any conclusions regarding the nature of the relationship between maternal
emotionality and obstetric and reproductive outcome. Mediating factors and
methodological difficulties are briefly discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Barclay, R.
and
M. Barclay
, 1976.
Aspects of the normal psychology of pregnancy: the midtrimester
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology123,
207-211
.
2.
Berle, B.
and
C. Javert
, 1954.
Stress and habitual abortion
. Obstetrics and Gynecology3,
298-298
.
3.
Bernstein, I.
, 1952.
An investigation into the etiology of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy
. Minnesota Medicine5,
34-34
.
4.
Biagi, M.
, 1974.
Psychological difficulties in the acceptance of pregnancy
. Rivista Internazionale di Psicologia e lpnosia15,
277-282
.
5.
Blau, A.
,
B. Slaff
,
D. Easton
,
J. Welkowitz
and
J. Cohen
, 1963.
The psychogenic etiology of premature births: a preliminary report
. Psychosomatic Medicine30,
201-211
.
6.
Burnstein, I.
,
R. Kinch
and
L. Stem
, 1974.
Anxiety, pregnancy labor and the neonate
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology118,
195-199
.
7.
Caldwell, J.
, 1958.
Personality in pregnancy and labor
. Southern Medical Journal51,
1026-1026
.
8.
Carr, G.D., 1963. A psychosociological study of fertile and unfertile
marriages. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, unpublished.
9.
Chertok, L.
,
M.L. Mondzain
and
M. Bonnard
, 1963.
Vomiting and the wish to have a child
. Psychosomatic Medicine25,
13-18
.
10.
Cohler, B.
,
D. Gallant
,
H. Grunebaum
,
J. Weiss
and
E. Gamer
, 1975.
Pregnancy and birth complications among mentally ill and well mothers and
their children
. Social Biology22,
269-278
.
11.
Coppen, A.J.
, 1959.
Vomiting of early pregnancy
. Lancet1,
172-172
.
12.
Crammond, W.
, 1954.
Psychological aspects of uterine dysfunction
. Lancet2,
1241-1241
.
13.
Davids, A.
and
S. DeVault
, 1962.
Maternal anxiety during pregnancy and childbirth abnormalities
. Psychosomatic Medicine24,
464-470
.
14.
Davids, A.
,
S. DeVault
and
M. Talmadge
, 1961a.
Anxiety, pregnancy and childbirth abnormalities
. Journal of Consulting Psychology25,
74-77
.
15.
Davids, A.
,
S. DeVault
and
M. Talmadge
, 1961b.
Psychological study of emotional factors in pregnancy: a preliminary report
. Psychosomatic Medicine23,
93-103
.
16.
Davids, A.
,
R. Holden
and
G. Gray
, 1963.
Maternal anxiety during pregnancy and adequacy of mother and child
adjustment eight months following childbirth
. Child Development34,
993-1002
.
17.
Deutsch, H.
, 1945. The psychology of women.
New York: Grune and Stratton
.
18.
Dodge, J.A.
, 1972.
Psychosomatic aspects of infantile pyloric stenosis
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research16,
1-5
.
19.
Dott, A.B.
and
A.T. Fort
, 1975.
The effect of maternal demographic factors on infant mortality rates
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology123,
847-853
.
20.
Drillien, C.M.
and
E. Wilkonson
, 1964.
Emotional stress and mongoloid birth
. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology6,
140-143
.
21.
Drillien, C.M.
,
T.T.S. Ingram
and
E.M. Wilkonson
, 1966. The causes and natural history of cleft palate.
Edinburgh: Livingstone
.
22.
Dunbar, H.F.
, 1943. Psychosomatic diagnosis.
New York: Hoeber
.
23.
Edwards, K.
and
M. Jones
, 1970.
Personality changes related to pregnancy and obstetric complications
. Proceedings, 78th Annual APA Convention.
24.
Eisner, B.
, 1963.
Some psychological differences between fertile and infertile women
. Journal of Clinical Psychology19,
391-391
.
25.
Ferreira, A.
, 1960.
The pregnant mother's emotional attitude and its reflection upon the newborn
. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry30,
553-561
.
26.
Ferreira, A.
, 1969. Prenatal environment.
Springfield: Thomas
.
27.
Ford, E.S.C.
,
E. Forman
and
J.R. Willson
, 1953.
A psychodynamic approach to the study of infertility
. Fertility-Sterility4,
456-456
.
28.
Glick I.
,
J. Royce
and
L. Salerno
, 1965.
Psychophysiologic factors in the etiology of preeclampsia
. Psychosomatic Medicine26,
632-632
.
29.
Gorsuch, R.
and
M. Key
, 1974.
Abnormalities of pregnancy as a function of anxiety and life stress
. Psychosomatic Medicine36,
352-362
.
30.
Grimm, E.
, 1961.
Psychological tension in pregnancy
. Psychosomatic Medicine23,
521-527
.
31.
Grimm, E.
, 1962.
Psychological investigation of habitual abortion
. Psychosomatic Medicine24,
368-378
.
32.
Grimm, E.
and
W.R. Venet
, 1966.
The relationship of emotional attitudes to the course and outcome of pregnancy
. Psychosomatic Medicine28,
34-49
.
33.
Gunter, L.
, 1963.
Psychopathology and stress in the life experience of mothers of premature infants
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology86,
333-333
.
34.
Harper, J.
and
S. Williams
, 1974.
Early environmental stress and infantile autism
. Medical Journal of Australia1,
341-346
.
35.
Harvey, W.A.
and
J.J. Sherfey
, 1954.
Vomiting in pregnancy: a psychiatric study
. Psychosomatic Medicine16,
1-1
.
36.
Heinstein, M.I.
, 1967.
Expressed attitudes and feelings of pregnant women and their relationship
to physical complications of pregnancy
. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly13,
217-236
.
37.
Heron, H.J.
and
J.L. White
, 1968.
The induction of ovulation using clomiphire citrate
. New Zealand Medical Journal67,
191-191
.
38.
Hetzel, B.
,
B. Bruer
and
L. Poidevin
, 1961.
A survey of the relation between certain common antenatal complications in
primiparae and stressful situations during pregnancy
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research5,
175-175
.
39.
Holmes, T.
and
R. Rahe
, 1967.
The social readjustment rating scale
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research11,
213-218
.
40.
James, W.H.
, 1969.
The effect of maternal psychological stress on the fetus
. British Journal of Psychiatry115,
811-825
.
41.
Jarrah-Zedeh, A.
,
F. Kane
,
R. Van de Castle
,
P. Lachenbruch
and
J. Ewing
, 1969.
Emotional and cognitive changes in pregnancy and early puerperium
. British Journal of Psychiatry115,
797-805
.
Javert, C.T.
, 1962.
Further-fellow-up on habitual abortion patients
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology84,
1149-1159
.
44.
Javert, C.T.
,
W.F. Finn
and
H.J. Stander
, 1949.
Primary and secondary spontaneous habitual abortion
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology57,
878-889
.
45.
Jeffcoat, T.N.A.
, 1955. Obstetrics. In:
E. Holland
(ed.), British obstetrics and gynecological practice.
London: Heinemann
.
Kaij, L.
, 1969.
Psychiatric aspects of spontaneous abortion, II. The importance of
bereavement, attachment and neurosis in early life
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research13,
53-53
.
48.
Kaltreider, F.
and
J. Johnson
, 1976.
Patients at high risk for low birth weight delivery
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology124,
251-256
.
49.
Kapp, F.T.
,
S. Hornstein
and
J.T. Graham
, 1963.
Some psychological factors in prolonged labor due to inefficient uterine action
. Comprehensive Psychiatry4,
9-9
.
50.
Kaufman, S.
, 1969.
Impact of infertility on the marital and sexual relationship
. Fertility and Sterility20,
380-380
.
51.
Kennedy, C.
, 1949.
Incoordinate uterine action
. Edinburgh Medical Journal56,
445-445
.
52.
Klebanov, D., 1948. Hunger und psychische Erregungen als ovar und
Keimschndigungen. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde 8, 812-820.
53.
Knoblock, H.
and
B. Pasaminick
, 1974. In: Gesell and Amatruda's Developmental
Diagnosis, 3rd ed.New York: Harper and Row
.
54.
Kroger, W.S.
, 1954.
Psychosomatic aspects of obstetrics and gynecology
. Obstetrics and Gynecology3,
504-516
.
55.
Kroger, W.S.
and
S.T. DeLee
, 1946.
The psychosomatic treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum by hypnosis
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology51,
544-442
.
56.
Lachman, S.J.
, 1972. Psychosomatic disorders: a behavioristic
interpretation.
New York: John Wiley and Sons
.
57.
Lakin, M.
, 1957.
Personality factors in mothers of excessively crying (colicky) infants
. Monographs on Social Research in Child Development22, No. 64.
58.
Light, H.
and
C. Fenster
, 1974.
Maternal concerns during pregnancy
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology118,
46-50
.
59.
Mai, F.
,
R.N. Munday
and
E. Rump
, 1972.
Psychiatric interview comparisons between infertile and fertile couples
. Psychosomatic Medicine34,
431-440
.
60.
Mandy, E.T.
and
A.J. Mandy
, 1958.
Psychosomatic aspects of infertility
. International Journal of Infertility3,
287-300
.
61.
Mann, E.C.
, 1956.
Psychiatric investigation of habitual abortion: a preliminary report
. Obstetrics and Gynecology7,
589-589
.
62.
Mann, E.C.
, 1959.
The role of emotional determinants in habitual abortion
. Surg. Clin. N. Amer.37,
447-447
.
63.
Masset, L.
, 1970.
Learning to control the uncontrollable
. Science News97,
259-259
.
64.
Matejcek, Z.
,
Z. Dytrych
and
V. Schuller
, 1975.
A Prague study of children born from unwanted pregnancy: psychological findings
. Psychologia a Patopsychologia Dietata10,
229-246
.
65.
McDonald, R.
, 1965.
Personality characteristics in patients with three obstetric complications
. Psychosomatic Medicine27,
383-383
.
66.
McDonald, R.
, 1968.
The role of emotional factors in obstetric complications: a review
. Psychosomatic Medicine30,
222-237
.
67.
McDonald, R.
and
A. Christakos
, 1963.
Relationship of emotional factors during pregnancy to obstetric complications
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology86,
383-383
.
68.
McDonald, R.
and
M. Gynther
, 1963.
Relations between self and parental perceptions of unwed mothers and
obstetric complications in unmarried primigravidae
. Psychosomatic Medicine27,
31-31
.
69.
McDonald, R.
and
K. Parham
, 1964.
Relation of emotional changes during pregnancy to obstetric complications
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology90,
196-196
.
70.
McDonald, R.
,
M. Gynther
and
A. Christakos
, 1963.
Relations between maternal anxiety and obstetric complications
. Psychosomatic Medicine25,
357-363
.
71.
McNeil, T.F.
and
L. Kaij
, 1973.
Obstetric notations of mental or behavioral disturbance
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research17,
175-188
.
72.
McNeil, T.F.
and
L. Kaij
, 1974.
Reproduction among female mental patients: obstetric complicatons and
physical size of offspring
. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica50,
3-15
.
73.
Mednick, S.
and
F. Schulsinger
, 1968. Some premorbid characteristics related to breakdown
in children with schizophrenic mothers. In:
D. Rosenthal
and
S. Kety
(eds.), The transmission of schizophrenia.
New York: Pergamon Press
.
74.
Mednick, S.
,
E. Maura
,
F. Schulsinger
and
B. Mednick
, 1971.
Perinatal conditions and infant development in children with schizophrenic parents
. Social Biology18,
103-113
(supplement).
75.
Mednick, S.
,
E. Maura
,
F. Schulsinger
and
B. Mednick
, 1973.
Erratum and further analysis: perinatal conditions and infant development
in children with schizophrenic parents
. Social Biology20,
111-111
.
76.
Miller, N.
, 1969.
Learning of visceral and glandular responses
. Science163,
434-445
.
77.
Mirdal, G.K.
,
S.A. Mednick
and
F. Schulsinger
, 1974.
Perinatal complications in children of schizophrenic mothers
. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica5,
553-568
.
78.
Murai, N.
and
T. Sato
, 1971.
Psychological study on pregnancy: relationship of maternal emotional
characteristics to body weight gain of newborn infants
. Journal of the Japanese Psychosomatic Society11,
25-29
.
79.
Nuckolls, K.B.
,
J. Cassel
and
B. Kaplan
, 1972.
Psychosocial assets, life crises, and the prognosis of pregnancy
. American Journal of Epidemiology95,
431-441
.
80.
Ottinger, D.
and
J. Simmons
, 1963. Maternal anxiety during gestation and neonate
behavior. Recent Advances in Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 5.
New York: Plenum Press
.
81.
Ottinger, D.
and
J. Simmons
, 1964.
Behavior of human neonates and prenatal maternal anxiety
. Psychological Reports14,
391-394
.
82.
Palmer, R.L.
, 1973.
A psychosomatic study of vomiting of early pregnancy
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research17,
303-308
.
83.
Patterson, V.
,
J. Block
,
J. Block
and
D.D. Jackson
, 1960.
The relation between intention to conceive and symptoms during pregnancy: a
preliminary report
. Psychosomatic Medicine22,
373-376
.
84.
Pfaffenberger, R.
and
L. McCabe
, 1966.
The effect of obstetric and perinatal events on risk of mental illness in
women of childbearing age
. American Journal of Public Health56,
400-407
.
85.
Pfaffenberger, R.
,
C. Steinmetz
,
B. Pooler
and
R. Hyde
, 1961.
The picture puzzle of the postpartum psychosis
. Journal of Chronological Disease13,
161-173
.
86.
Pilowsky, I.
and
J. Sharp
, 1971.
Psychological aspects of pre-eclamptic toxemia: a prospective study
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research15,
193-197
.
87.
Ringrose, C.
, 1961a.
Psychosomatic influence in the genesis of toxemia of pregnancy
. Canadian Medical Association Journal84,
647-647
.
88.
Ringrose, C.
, 1961b.
Further observations on the psychosomatic character of toxemia in pregnancy
. Canadian Medical Association Journal84,
1064-1065
.
89.
Roger, S.C.
,
D. Wheatly
,
A.W. Galbraith
,
F.R. Smith
and
G. Elson
, 1970.
Psychotropic drugs and fertility
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research14,
383-386
.
90.
Rosen, S.
, 1955.
Emotional factors in nausea and vomiting of pregnancy
. Psychiatric Quarterly29,
621-621
.
91.
Rosengren, W.
, 1961.
Some social-psychological aspects of delivery room difficulties
. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease132,
515-521
.
92.
Rothman, D.
,
A. Kaplan
and
E. Nettles
, 1962.
Psychosomatic infertility
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology83,
373-381
.
93.
Sameroff, A.J.
and
M. Chandler
, 1975. Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking
casualty. In:
F.D. Horowitz
(ed.), Review of child development research, Vol. IV.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press
.
94.
Sameroff, A.J.
and
M. Zax
, 1973a.
Perinatal characteristics of the offspring of schizophrenic women
. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease157,
191-199
.
95.
Sameroff, A.J.
and
M. Zax
, 1973b.
Schizotaxia revisited: model issues in the etiology of schizophrenia
. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry43,
744-754
.
96.
Schafer, E.S.
and
H. Manheimer
, 1960.
Dimensions of perinatal adjustment
. Paper given at the Eastern Psychological Association,
New York, April.
97.
Scott, E.M.
and
A.M. Thompson
, 1956.
A psychological investigation of primigravidae: IV. Psychological factors
and the clinical phenomenon of labor
. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of the British Empire63,
502-502
.
98.
Seward, G.
,
P. Wagner
,
J. Heinrich
,
S. Bloch
and
H. Meyerhoff
, 1965.
The question of psychophysiologic infertility: some negative answers
. Psychosomatic Medicine27,
533-545
.
99.
Shaw, J.
,
P. Wheeler
and
M. Morgan
, 1970.
Emotions during pregnancy
. Journal of the American Child Psychiatry9,
428-428
.
100.
Sontag, L.
, 1941.
The significance of fetal environmental differences
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology42,
996-1003
.
101.
Sontag, L.
, 1944.
Differences in modifiability of fetal behavior and physiology
. Psychosomatic Medicine6,
151-154
.
102.
Sontag, L.
, 1966.
Implications of fetal behavior and environment for adult personalities
. Annals of the New York Academy of Science134,
783-786
.
103.
Squier, R.
and
F. Dunbar
, 1946.
Emotional factors in the course of pregnancy
. Psychosomatic Medicine8,
161-175
.
104.
Stewart, A.
,
I. Weiland
,
A. Leider
,
C. Mangham
,
T. Jolmes
and
H. Ripley
, 1954.
Excessive infant crying (colic) in relation to parent behavior
. American Journal of Psychiatry110,
687-694
.
105.
Stott, D.
, 1957.
Physical and mental handicaps following a disturbed pregnancy
. LancetI,
1006-1012
.
106.
Stott, D.
, 1959.
Evidence for prenatal impairment of temperament in mentally retarded children
. Vita Humanity2,
125-148
.
107.
Stott, D.
, 1971. The child's hazards in utero. In:
J. Howell
(ed.), Modern perspectives in international child psychiatry.
New York: Brunner/Mazel
.
108.
Strean, L.
and
L. Peters
, 1956.
Stress as an etiologic factor in the development of cleft palate
. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery18,
1-18
.
109.
Tupper, C.
and
R.J. Weil
, 1962.
The problem of spontaneous abortion. IX. The treatment of habitual abortion
by psychotherapy
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology83,
421-421
.
110.
Turner, E.K.
, 1956.
The syndrome in the infant resulting from maternal emotional tension during pregnancy
. Medical Journal of Australia4,
221-222
.
111.
Uddenberg, N.
,
A. Nilsson
and
P. Almgren
, 1971.
Nausea in pregnancy: psychological and psychosomatic aspects
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research15,
269-276
.
112.
Weil, J.
and
L.C. Stewart
, 1957.
The problem of spontaneous abortion
. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology73,
322-327
.
113.
Weil, R.
and
C. Tupper
, 1960.
Personality, life situation, and communication: a study of habitual abortion
. Psychosomatic Medicine22,
448-455
.
114.
Werner, E.E.
,
J.M. Bierman
and
F.C. French
, 1971. The children of Kauai.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press
.
115.
Whalen, E.M.
, 1975. A baby... maybe?New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.
116.
Whitacre
and
Barrera
, 1944.
War amenorrhea: clinical and laboratory study
. Journal of the American Medical Association125,
399-399
.
117.
Williams, J.H.
, 1977. Psychology of women.
New York: W.W. Norton and Company
.
118.
Williams, R.
,
R. Williams
,
M. Griswold
and
T. Holmes
, 1975.
Pregnancy and life change
. Journal of Psychosomatic Research19,
123-129
.
119.
Winget, C.
and
F.T. Kapp
, 1972.
The relationship of the manifest context of dreams to duration of
childbirth in primiparae
. Psychosomatic Medicine34,
313-320
.
120.
Woerner, M.
,
M. Pollack
and
D. Klein
, 1973.
Pregnancy and birth complications of schizophrenic parents
. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica49,
712-721
.
121.
Yarden, P.E.
and
I. Surany
, 1968.
The early development of institutionalized children by schizophrenic mothers
. Diseases of the Nervous System20,
380-384
.
