Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2010-9
Developmental continuity and stability of emotional availability in the family: Two ages and two genders in child-mother dyads from two regions in three countries
This study employs an intra-national and cross-national, prospective, and longitudinal design to examine age, gender, region, and country variation in group mean-level continuity and individual-differences stability of emotional availability in child—mother dyads. Altogether, 220 Argentine, Italian, and US American metropolitan and rural residence mothers and their daughters and sons were observed at home when children were five and 20 months of age. Similar patterns of continuity and discontinuity of emotional availability from five to 20 months were observed across regions and countries, but not between genders. Stability of emotional availability from five to 20 months was moderate and similar across genders, regions, and countries. Universal and gender-specific developmental processes in child—mother emotional availability as revealed in intra-national and cross-national study are discussed.
Adolph, K.E., & Berger, S. ( 2005). Physical and psychomotor development. In M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental science: An advanced textbook (5th ed., pp. 223-281). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
2.
Arnett, J.J. ( 2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 63, 602-614.
3.
Aviezer, O., Sagi, A., Joels, T., & Ziv, Y. ( 1999). Emotional availability and attachment representations in kibbutz infants and their mothers. Developmental Psychology , 35, 811-821.
4.
Biringen, Z. ( 2000). Emotional availability: Conceptualization and research findings. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 104-114.
5.
Biringen, Z., Emde, R., Brown, D., Lowe, L., Myers, S., & Nelson, D. ( 1999). Emotional availability and emotion communication in naturalistic mother-infant interactions: Evidence for gender relations . Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 14, 463-478.
6.
Biringen, Z., Emde, R.N., Campos, J.J., & Appelbaum, M.I. (1995). Affective reorganization in the infant, the mother, and the dyad: The role of upright locomotion and its timing. Child Development, 66, 499-514.
7.
Biringen, Z., Matheny, A., Bretherton, I., Renouf, A., & Sherman, M. ( 2000). Maternal representation of the self as parent: Connections with maternal sensitivity and maternal structuring. Attachment & Human Development, 2, 218-232.
8.
Biringen, Z., & Robinson, J. ( 1991). Emotional availability in mother-child interactions: A reconceptualization for research. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 61, 258-271.
9.
Biringen, Z., Robinson, J.L., & Emde, R.N. ( 1994). Maternal sensitivity in the second year: Gender-based relations in the dyadic balance of control. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64, 78-90.
10.
Biringen, Z., Robinson, J.L., & Emde, R.N. ( 1998). Emotional Availability Scales (3rd Ed.). Unpublished manual, Department on Human Development and Family Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.
11.
Bornstein, M.H. ( 1979). The pace of life: Revisited. International Journal of Psychology, 14, 83-90.
12.
Bornstein, M.H. ( 1980). Cross-cultural developmental psychology. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Comparative methods in psychology (pp. 231-281). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
13.
Bornstein, M.H. ( 1991). Approaches to parenting in culture. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Cultural approaches to parenting (pp. 3-19). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
14.
Bornstein, M.H. ( 2000). Infancy: Emotions and temperament. In A.E. Kazdin (Ed.), The encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 278-284). New York, NY: American Psychological Association and Oxford University Press.
15.
Bornstein, M.H. ( 2002). Toward a multiculture multiage multimethod science . Human Development, 45, 257-263.
16.
Bornstein, M.H. (Ed.). (2009). The Handbook of Cultural Developmental Science. Volume 1. Domains of Development across Cultures. Volume 2. Development in Different Places on Earth. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group .
17.
Bornstein, M.H., Gini, M., Putnick, D.L., Haynes, O.M., Painter, K.M., & Suwalsky, J.T.D. (2006). Short-term reliability and continuity of emotional availability in infant-mother dyads across contexts of observation. Infancy, 10, 1-16.
18.
Bornstein, M.H., Gini, M., Suwalsky, J.T.D., Putnick, D.L., & Haynes, O.M. ( 2006). Emotional availability in mother-child dyads: Short-term stability and continuity from variable and person points of view . Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52, 547-571.
19.
Bornstein, M.H., Hahn, C.-S., & Haynes, O.M. ( 2004). Specific and general language performance across early childhood: Stability and gender considerations. First Language , 24, 267-304.
20.
Bornstein, M.H., Hahn, C.-S., Suwalsky, J.T.D., & Haynes, O.M. ( 2003). Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development: The Hollingshead Four-Factor Index of Social Status and the Socioeconomic Index of Occupations. In M.H. Bornstein & R.H. Bradley (Eds.), Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development (pp. 29-82). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
21.
Bornstein, M.H., & Haynes, O.M. ( 1998). Vocabulary competence in early childhood: Measurement, latent construct, and predictive validity. Child Development , 69, 654-671.
22.
Bornstein, M.H., & Suess, P.E. ( 2000). Child and mother cardiac vagal tone: Continuity, stability, and concordance across the first 5 years. Developmental Psychology , 36, 54-65.
23.
Bornstein, M.H., & Tamis-LeMonda, C.S. (1990). Activities and interactions of mothers and their firstborn infants in the first six months of life: Covariation, stability, continuity, correspondence, and prediction. Child Development, 61, 1,206-1,217.
24.
Bowlby, J. ( 1969). Attachment and loss. New York, NY : Basic Books.
25.
Bradley, R.H. ( 2002). Environment and parenting. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting; Vol. 2. Biology and ecology of parenting (2nd ed., pp. 281-314). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
26.
Bretherton, I. ( 2000). Emotional availability: An attachment perspective . Attachment & Human Development, 2, 233-241.
27.
Brislin, R.W. ( 1983). Cross-cultural research in psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 34, 363-400.
28.
Brody, L.R., & Hall, J.A. ( 2000). Gender, emotion, and expression. In M. Lewis & J.M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 338-349). New York, NY: Guilford.
29.
Bronfenbrenner, U. ( 1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
30.
Bronfenbrenner, U. ( 1989). Ecological systems theory. Annals of Child Development, 6, 187-249.
31.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P.A. ( 2006). The ecology of developmental processes. In R.M. Lerner (Ed.) & W. Damon (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 993-1,028). New York, NY: Wiley.
32.
Caldera, Y.M., Huston, A.C., & O’Brien, M. (1989). Social interactions and play patterns of parents and toddlers with feminine, masculine, and neutral toys. Child Development, 60, 70-76.
33.
Camaioni, L., Longobardi, E., Venuti, P., & Bornstein, M.H. (1998). Maternal speech to 1-year-old children in two Italian cultural contexts. Early Development and Parenting, 7, 9-17.
34.
Chodorow, N. ( 1978). The reproduction of mothering: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
35.
Clarke-Stewart, K.A. ( 1973). Interactions between mothers and their young children: Characteristics and consequences. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38(6-7, Serial No 153), 1-108.
36.
Clarke-Stewart, K.A., & Hevey, C.M. ( 1981). Longitudinal relations in repeated observations of mother-child interaction from 1 to 2 1/2 years. Developmental Psychology , 17, 127-145.
37.
Cohn, J.F., & Tronick, E.Z. ( 1987). Mother infant face-to-face interaction: The sequence of dyadic states at 3, 6, and 9 months. Developmental Psychology , 23, 68-77.
38.
Coleman, M., Ganong, L.H., Clark, J.M., & Madsen, R. ( 1989). Parenting perceptions in rural and urban-metropolitan families: Is there a difference? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 329-335.
39.
Dallaire, D.H., & Weinraub, M. ( 2005). The stability of parenting behaviors over the first 6 years of life. Early Childhood Research Quarterly , 20, 201-219.
40.
Denham, S.A. ( 1998). Emotional development in young children. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
41.
Eagly, A.H., Beall, A.E.,& Sternberg, R.J. (Eds.). (2004). The psychology of gender (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
42.
Easterbrooks, M.A., Biesecker, G., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2000). Infancy predictors of emotional availability in middle childhood: The roles of attachment security and maternal depressive symptomatology. Attachment and Human Development , 2, 170-187.
43.
Easterbrooks, M.A., & Biringen, Z. ( 2000). Guest editors’ introduction to the special issue: Mapping the terrain of emotional availability and attachment. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 123-129.
44.
Easterbrooks, M.A., & Biringen, Z. ( 2005). The Emotional Availability Scales: Methodological refinements of the construct and clinical implications related to gender and at-risk interactions . Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 291-294.
45.
Easterbrooks, M.A., & Biringen, Z. ( 2009). Emotional availability across contexts. Parenting: Science and Practice, 9, 179-182.
46.
Edwards, C.P., & Liu, W. ( 2002). Parenting toddlers. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 1: Children and parenting (2nd ed., pp. 45-71). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
47.
Eid, M., & Diener, E. ( 2001). Norms for experiencing emotions in different cultures: Inter- and intranational differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 869-885.
48.
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A. & Spinrad, T.L. ( 1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 41-273.
49.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R.A., Shepard, S.A., Murphy, B.C., Guthrie, I.K., Jones, S., et al. (1997). Contemporaneous and longitudinal prediction of children’s social functioning from regulation and emotionality. Child Development, 68, 642-664.
50.
Emde, R.N. ( 1980). Emotional availability: A reciprocal reward system for infants and parents with implications for prevention of psychosocial disorders . In P.M. Taylor (Ed.), Parent-infant relationships (pp. 87-115). Orlando, FL : Grune & Stratton.
51.
Emde, R.N. ( 2000). Next steps in emotional availability research . Attachment & Human Development, 2, 242-248.
52.
Emde, R.N., & Easterbrooks, M.A. (1985). Assessing emotional availability in early development. In D.K. Frankenberg, R.N. Emde, & J.W. Sullivan (Eds.), Early identification of children at risk: An international perspective (pp. 79-101). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
53.
Emde, R.N., Gaensbauer, T.J., & Harmon, R.J. ( 1976). Emotional expression in infancy: A biobehavioral study . Psychological Issues, 10, 1-200.
54.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G.,.& Buchner, A. ( 2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavioral Research Methods, 39, 175-191.
55.
Fox, J. ( 1997). Applied regression analysis, linear models and related methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
56.
Gilligan, C. ( 1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
57.
Golombok, S., & Fivush, R. ( 1994). Gender development. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
58.
Graziano, W.G., & Tobin, R.M. ( 2003). Emotional regulation from infancy through adolescence . In M.H. Bornstein, L. Davidson, C.L.M. Keyes , & K.A. Moore (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development across the life course (pp. 139-154). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
59.
Greenfield, P.M., Suzuki, L.K., & Rothstein-Fisch, C. (2006). Cultural pathways through human development. In K.A. Renninger & I.E. Sigel (Ed.), W. Damon (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice (6th ed., pp. 655-699). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
60.
Grolnick, W.S., & Ryan, R.M. ( 1989). Parental styles associated with children’s self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology , 81, 143-154.
61.
Halberstadt, A.G., Denham, S., & Dunsmore, J.C. (2000). Affective social competence . Social Development, 10, 79-119.
62.
Halle, T.G. ( 2003). Emotional development and well-being. In M.H. Bornstein, L. Davidson , C.L.M. Keyes, & K.A. Moore (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development across the life course (pp. 125- 138). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
63.
Halpern, D.F. ( 2000). Sex differences in cognitive abilities. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
64.
Hartmann, D.P., & Pelzel, K. ( 2005). Design, measurement, and analysis in developmental research . In M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental science: An advanced textbook (5th ed., pp. 103-184). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
65.
Hauser, P.M., & Schnore, L.F. ( 1965). The study of urbanization. New York, NY: Wiley.
66.
Hill, R., Stycos, J.M., & Back, K. ( 1959). The family and population control. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press .
67.
Hinde, R.A., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1987). Interpersonal relationships and child development. Developmental Review, 7, 1-21.
68.
Holden, G., & Miller, P.C. ( 1999). Enduring and different: A meta-analysis of the similarity in parents’ child rearing. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 233-254.
69.
Hollingshead, A.B. ( 1975). Four factor index of social status. New Haven, CT: Yale University, Dept. of Sociology .
70.
Kaye, K. ( 1982). The mental and social life of babies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
71.
Kennedy, S., Scheirer, J., & Rogers, A. ( 1984). The price of success: Our monocultural science . American Psychologist, 39, 996-997.
72.
Kitayama, S., & Markus, H.R. ( 1994). Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
73.
Kimura, D. ( 1999). Sex and cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
74.
Lampard, J.E., Voigt, M., & Bornstein, M.H. (2000). Urban and rural parenting . In L. Balter (Ed.), Parenthood in America: An encyclopedia (pp. 442-444). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Press.
75.
Leaper, C. ( 2002). Parenting girls and boys. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 1. Children and parenting (2nd ed., pp. 189-225). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
76.
Lehr, R., & Jeffery, G. ( 1996). Career support needs of youth: A qualitative analysis of the rural perspective. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 30, 240-253.
77.
Levine, R., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). The pace of life in 31 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30, 178-205.
78.
Ley, R.G., & Koepke, J.E. ( 1982). Attachment behavior outdoors: Naturalistic observations of sex and age differences in the separation behavior of young children. Infant Behavior and Development, 5, 195-201.
79.
Lillard, A.S., & Witherington, D.C. (2004). Mothers’ behavior modifications during pretense and their possible signal value for toddlers . Developmental Psychology, 40, 95-113.
80.
Lovas, G.S. ( 2005). Gender and patterns of emotional availability in mother-toddler and father-toddler dyads. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 327-353.
81.
Maccoby, E.E. (Ed.). (1966). The development of sex differences. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
82.
Maccoby, E.E. ( 1988). Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology, 24, 755-765.
83.
Maccoby, E.E. ( 1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account [American Psychological Association: Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award Address, 1989, New Orleans, LA]. American Psychologist , 45, 513-520.
84.
Maccoby, E.E., & Jacklin, C.N. ( 1974). Myth, reality, and shades of grey: What we know and don’t know about sex differences. Psychology Today , 8, 109-112.
85.
Mahler, M.S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. ( 1975). The psychological birth of the human infant Symbiosis and individuation. New York, NY: Basic Books.
86.
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. ( 1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
87.
Martin, S.E., Clements, M.L., & Crnic, K.A. ( 2002). Maternal emotions during mother-toddler interaction: Parenting in affective context. Parenting: Science and Practice , 2, 105-126.
88.
Matsumoto, D. ( 1993). Ethnic differences in affect intensity, emotion judgments, display rule attitudes, and self-reported emotional expression in anAmerican sample. Motivation and Emotion, 17, 107-123.
89.
McCall, R.B. ( 1981). Nature-nurture and the two realms of development: A proposed integration with respect to mental development. Child Development , 52, 1-12.
90.
McCune-Nicolich, L., & Fenson, L. ( 1984). Methodological issues in studying early pretend play . In T.D. Yawkey & A.D. Pelligrini (Eds.), Child’s play: Developmental and applied (pp. 81-124). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
91.
McCrae, R.R., Costa, P.T., Jr., Martin, T.A., Oryol, V.E., Rukavishnikov, A.A., & Senin, I.G. ( 2004). Consensual validation of personality traits across cultures . Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 179-201.
92.
McCrae, R.R., Terracciano, A., & 78 Members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project. (2005). Universal features of personality traits from the observer’s perspective: Data from 50 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 547-561.
93.
McGraw, K.O., & Wong, S.P. ( 1996). Forming inferences about some intraclass correlation coefficients. Psychological Methods, 1, 30-46.
94.
Mesquita, B., Frijda, N., & Scherer, K. ( 1997). Culture and emotion. In J.W. Berry, P.R. Dasen, & T.S. Saraswathi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. I1. Basic processes and human development (2nd ed., 255-297). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
95.
Miller, J.B. ( 1986). Toward a new psychology of women. Cambridge, MA: Beacon.
96.
Moghaddam, F.M. ( 1987). Psychology in three worlds. American Psychologist, 42, 912-920.
97.
Morris, A.S., Robinson, L.R., & Eisenberg, N. ( 2006). Applying a multimethod perspective to the study of developmental psychology. In M. Eid , & E. Diener (Eds.), Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology (pp. 371-384). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
98.
Mussen, P., & Maldonado Beytagh, L.A. (1969). Industrialization, child-rearing practices, and children’s personality. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 115, 195-216.
99.
Nsamenang, A.B., & Lamb, M.E. ( 1995). The force of beliefs: How the parental values of the Nso of northwest Cameroon shape children’s progress toward adult models . Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 613-627.
100.
Okagaki, L., & Divecha, D.J. ( 1993). Development of parental beliefs. In T. Luster & L. Okagaki (Eds.), Parenting: An ecological perspective (pp. 35-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
101.
Olesker, W. ( 1984). Sex differences in 2- and 3-year-olds: Mother-child relations, peer relations, and peer play. Psychoanalytic Psychology , 1, 269-288.
102.
Olesker, W. ( 1990). Sex differences during the early separation-individuation process: Implications for gender identity formation. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 38, 325-346.
103.
Palacios, J., & Moreno, M.C. ( 1996). Parents’ and adolescents’ ideas on children: Origins and transmission of intracultural diversity. In S. Harkness & C.M. Super (Eds.), Parents’ cultural belief systems: Their origins, expressions, and consequences (pp. 254-269). New York, NY : Guilford Press.
104.
Panksepp, J. ( 1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
105.
Papoušek, H., & Papoušek, M. (2002). Intuitive parenting. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting Vol. 2 Biology and ecology of parenting (2nd ed., pp. 183-203). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
106.
Pascual, L., Galperín, C.Z., & Bornstein, M.H. (1993). La medición del nivel socioeconómico y la psicología evolutiva: El caso Argentino [Measurement of socioeconomic status and developmental psychology: The Argentine case]. Revista Interamericana de Psicologia/ Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 27, 59-74.
107.
Piaget, J. ( 1974). Need and significance of cross-cultural studies in genetic psychology (C. Dasen, Trans.). In J.W. Berry & P.R. Dasen (Eds.), Culture and cognition (pp. 299-309). London: Methuen. (Original work published, 1966.).
108.
Redfield, R. ( 1947). The folk society. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 293-308.
109.
Roberts, B.W., Walton, K.E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1-25.
110.
Robinson, J.L., & Biringen, Z. ( 1995). Gender and emerging autonomy in development. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 15, 60-74.
111.
Robinson, J., Little, C., & Biringen, Z. ( 1993). Emotional communication in mother-toddler relationships: Evidence for early gender differentiation. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39, 496-517.
112.
Ruble, D.N., Martin, C.L., & Berenbaum, S.A. (2006). Gender development. In D. Kuhn & R.S. Siegler (Ed.), W. Damon (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language (6th ed., pp. 858-932). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
113.
Russell, R. ( 1984). Psychology in its world context. American Psychologist, 39, 1,017-1,025.
114.
Saarni, C. ( 1999). The development of emotional competence. New York, NY: Guilford.
115.
Saarni, C., Campos, J.J., Camras, L.A., & Witherington, D. (2006). Emotional development: Action, communication, and understanding. In D. Kuhn & R.S. Siegler (Ed.), W. Damon (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language (6th ed., pp. 226-299). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley .
116.
Scanzoni, J., & Arnett, C. ( 1987). Policy implications derived from a study of rural and urban marriages. Family Relations, 36, 430-436.
117.
Scherer, K.R., & Wallbott, H.G. (1994). Evidence of universality and cultural variation of differential emotion response patterning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 310-328.
118.
Schwartz, C.R., & Mare, R.D. ( 2005). Trends in educational assortative marriage from 1940 to 2003. Demography, 42, 621-646.
119.
Sexton, V.S., & Misiak, H. ( 1984). American psychologist and psychology abroad. American Psychologist, 39, 1,026-1,031.
Sjoberg, G. ( 1964). The rural-urban metropolitan dimension in preindustrial, transitional, and industrial societies. In R.E.L. Faris (Ed.), Handbook of modern sociology (pp. 127-159). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
122.
Stevenson, M.B., Leavitt, L.A., Roach, M.A., Chapman, R.S., & Miller, J.F. ( 1986). Mothers’ speech to their 1-year-old infants in home and laboratory settings. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 15, 451-461.
123.
Stott, L.H. ( 1940). Parental attitudes of farm, town, and city parents in relation to certain personality adjustments in their children. Journal of Social Psychology, 11, 325-339.
124.
Swanson, K., Beckwith, L., & Howard, J. ( 2000). Intrusive caregiving and quality of attachment in prenatally drug-exposed toddlers and their primary caregivers. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 130-148.
125.
Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. ( 1996). Using multivariate statistics. New York, NY: Harper Collins.
126.
Thompson, M.J.J., Stevenson, J., Sonuga-Barke, E., Nott, P., Price, Z.B.A., & Hudswell, M. ( 1996). Mental health of preschool children and their mothers in a mixed metropolitan/rural population. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 16-20.
127.
Thompson, R.A., & Goodvin, R. ( 2005). The individual child: Temperament, emotion, self, and personality. In M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental science: An advanced textbook (pp. 391-428). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
128.
Tomlinson, M., & Swartz, L. ( 2003). Imbalances in the knowledge about infancy: The divide between rich and poor countries. Infant Mental Health Journal , 24, 547-556.
129.
Tonnies, F. ( 1963). Community and society. New York, NY : Harper & Row. (Original work published 1887)
Užgiris, I., & Raeff, C. ( 1995). Play in parent-child interactions. In M.H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4. Applied and practical parenting (pp. 353-376). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
132.
Valsiner, J. ( 1989). Human development and culture. Cambridge, MA: Lexington Books.
133.
van de Vijver, F.J.R., & Leung, K. ( 1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
134.
van IJzendoorn, M.H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., & Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2006). Attachments across diverse sociocultural contexts: The limits of universality. In K.H. Rubin & O.B. Chung (Eds.), Parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent-child relations: A cross-cultural perspective (pp. 107-142). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
135.
Waber, D. ( 1976). Sex differences in cognition: A function of maturation rate? Science, 192, 572-573.
136.
Weisner, T. ( 2005, April). Culture & context: The most important influence in human development. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development , Atlanta, GA.
137.
Witherington, D.C., Campos, J.J., & Hertenstein, M.J. (2001). Principles of emotion and its development in infancy. In J.G. Bremner , & A. Fogel (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of infant development (pp. 427-464). Malden, MA : Blackwell Publishers, Inc.
138.
Whiting, J.W. ( 1981). Environmental constraints on infant care practices . In R.H. Munroe, R.L. Munroe, & B.B. Whiting (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural human development (pp. 155-179). New York, NY: Garland STPM Press.
139.
Willis, F., Bealer, R., & Crider, D. ( 1982). Persistence of rural/urban differences. In D. Dillman & D. Hobbs (Eds.) Rural society in the US: Issues for the 1980s (pp. 69-76). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
140.
Wirth, L. ( 1938). Urbanism as a way of life. American Journal of Sociology, 44, 1-24.
141.
Wohlwill, J.F. ( 1973). The study of behavioral development. New York, NY: Academic Press.
142.
Wolff, P.H. ( 1984). Discontinuous changes in human wakefulness around the end of the second month of life: A developmental perspective. In H.F.R. Prechtl (Ed.), Continuity of neural functions from prenatal to postnatal life (pp. 144-158). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
143.
Zayas, L.H. ( 1995). Family functioning and child rearing in an urban environment . Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics , 16, S21-S24.
144.
Ziv, Y., Aviezer, O., Gini, M., Sagi, A., & Koren-Karie, N. (2000). Emotional availability in the mother-infant dyad as related to the quality of infant-mother attachment relationship. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 149-169.
145.
Ziv, Y., Gini, M., Guttman, S., & Sagi, A. ( 1997, April). Dyadic emotional availability and quality of infant-mother attachment: A three point longitudinal study. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development , Washington, D.C.
