This article reviews the process of intervention research, with particular emphasis on interventions with and for older adults. First, we consider the context of intervention research: What are the resources and constraints that shape the process of intervention and research? Second, we outline a taxonomy of interventions, reflecting different combinations of level and timing of interventions. Third, we consider the types of research designs that are most appropriate in the different contexts of applied research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anderson, S. B.
and C. D. Coles (eds.) 1978"Exploring purposes and dimensions,"New Directions for Program Evaluation, No. 1. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
2.
Andrews, G. R.
, J. Baltazar, P. Y. Chen, J. Lopez, J. Huh, and N. Plange. 1975 "Cross-national study of social and health aspects of aging-Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, and Fyi." Presented at the XIIIth International Congress of Gerontology, New York, July.
3.
Baltes, P. B.
1984 "Life-span developmental psychology: implications for research and practice." Presented at the 92nd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada, August 25 (invited address).
4.
Baltes, P. B.
and S. J. Danish1980"Intervention in life-span development and aging: issues and concepts," pp. 49-78 in R. R. Turner and H. W. Reese (eds.) Life-Span Developmental Psychology: Intervention. New York: Academic Press.
5.
Baltes, P. B.
, F. Dittmann-Kohli, and R. A. Dixon1984"New perspective on the development of intelligence in adulthood: toward a dual-process conception and a model of selective optimization with compensation," pp. 34-76 in P. B. Baltes and 0. G. Brim, Jr. (eds.) Life-Span Development and Behavior, Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press.
6.
Berger, R.
and S. Rose1977"Interpersonal skill training with institutionalized elderly patients."J. of Gerontology32, 3: 346-353.
7.
Biegel, D. E.
, B. K. Shore, and E. Gordon1984Building Support Networks for the Elderly: Theory and Applications. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
8.
Birkel, R. C. 1984 "Sources of caregiving strain in long-term home care." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Virginia.
9.
Bogat, G. A.
and L.A. Jason forthcoming "An evaluation of two visiting programs for elderly community residents."Int. J. of Aging and Human Development.
10.
Boruch, R. F.
and W. R. Shadish, Jr.1983"Design issues in community intervention research," pp. 73-98 in E. Seidman (ed.) Handbook of Social Intervention. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
11.
Butler, R. N.1975Why Survive? Being Old in America. New York: Harper & Row.
12.
Campbell, D. T.
and J. C. Stanley1963Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally.
13.
Caplan, G.1964Principles of Preventive Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.
14.
Cook, T. D.
, F. L. Cook, and M. M. Mark1977"Randomized and quasi-experimental designs in evaluation research," pp. 101-139 in L. Rutman (ed.) Evaluation Research Methods: A Basic Guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
15.
Coursey, R. D.
, G. A. Specter, S. A. Murrell, and B. Hunt1977Program Evaluation for Mental Health. New York: Grune & Stratton.
16.
Coward, R. T.1979"Planning community services for the rural elderly: implications from re- search."Gerontologist19: 275-282.
17.
Danish, S. J.
, M. A. Smyer, and C. A. Nowak1980"Developmental intervention: enhancing life event processes," pp. 340-366 in P. B. Baltes and 0. G. Brim, Jr. (eds.) Life-Span Development and Behavior, Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press.
18.
Dolenc, C. A.
and C. J. Dougherty1985"DRGs: the counterrevolution in financing health care."Hastings Center Report15, 3: 19-29.
19.
Eberly, T. D.
1985 "GRTS: a mental health alternative for nursing homes." Presented at NIMH's National Conference on Geriatric Mental Health Services Research, Key Biscayne, Florida, June.
20.
Edwards, W.
and M. Guttentag1975"Experiments and evaluations: a reexamination," pp. 409-463 in C. A. Bennett and A. A. Lumsdaine (eds.) Evaluation and Experiment: Some Critical Issues in Assessing Social Programs. New York: Academic Press.
21.
Eskew, R. W.
, R. E. Sexton, S. E. Tars, and F. M. Wilcox1983"Day treatment program evaluation," pp. 63-84 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
22.
Estes, C. L.1979The Aging Enterprise. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
23.
Frankfather, D. L.
, M. J. Smith, and F. G. Caro1981Family Care of the Elderly. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
24.
Gallagher, D.
and L. W. Thompson1982"Cognitive therapy for depression in the elderly: a promising model for treatment and research," in L. Breslau and M. Hang (eds.) Depression in the Elderly. New York: Springer.
25.
Gatz, M.
1985 "Prevention and aging: community programs." Presented at the NMHA Commission on the Prevention of Mental and Emotional Disability, Alexandria, VA, May 12.
26.
Gatz, M.
, O. A. Barbarin, F. B. Tyler, R. E. Mitchell, J. A. Moran, P. J. Wirzbicki, J. Crawford, and A. Engelman1982"Enhancement of individual and community competence: the older adult as community worker."Amer. J. of Community Psychology10: 291-303.
27.
Gatz, M.
, J. Eiler, C. Pearson, M. Gilewski, M. Fuentes, M. Zemansky, C. Emery, and L. Dougherty1984"Evaluation of a personal emergency response system," pp. 411-424 in P. Robinson, J. Livingston, and J. E. Birren (eds.) Aging and Technological Advances. New York: Plenum.
28.
Gatz, M.
, C. Pearson, and W. Weicker forthcoming "Older persons and health psychology," in G. C. Stoneet al. (eds.) Health Psychology: A Discipline and a Profession. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
29.
Gatz, M.
, S. J. Popkin, C. D. Pino, and G. R. VandenBos1985"Psychological interventions with older adults," pp. 755-785 in J. E. Birren and K. W. Schaie (eds.) Handbook of the Psychology of Aging. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
30.
Gatz, M.
, A. Smyer, and M. P. Lawton1980"The mental health system and the older adult," in L. W. Poon (ed.) Aging in the 1980s: Selected Contemporary Issues in the Psychology of Aging. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
31.
Grant, D. I.
(ed.) 1978"Monitoring ongoing programs," in New Directions for Program Evaluation, No. 3. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
32.
Gray, D.1983"Empowering older job seekers via the job club," pp. 147-163 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
33.
Griffin, L.
and L. Gottesman1983"Training professionals in aging and mental health," pp. 291-304 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
34.
Harper, M. S.
and B. Lebowitz (eds.) 1985Mental Illness in Nursing Homes: Agenda for Research. Rockville, MD: NIMH, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
35.
Hausman, C.1979"Short-term counseling groups for people with elderly parents."Gerontologist19: 102-107.
36.
Hickey, T.
and E. White1981"Research in practice: the Gerontological Society's Fellowship Program."Gerontologist20: 701-707.
37.
Hofland, B. F.
, M. A. Smyer, T. Wetle, and A. R. Walter forthcoming "Linking research and practice: the fellowship program in applied gerontology."Gerontologist.
38.
Jason, L.
and S. Smetak1983"Altering the interior design of a nursing home," pp. 215-226 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
39.
Jones, A. A.
and Welkovics, M.1984"Prospective payment: curbing Medicare costs at patient's expense."Generations (Fall): 19-21.
40.
Kane, R. A.
and R. L. Kane1981Assessing the Elderly. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
41.
Knight, B.1983"Evaluation of a mobile geriatric outreach team," pp. 23-40 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
42.
Kosecoff, J.
and A. Fink1982Evaluation Basics: A Practitioner's Manual. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
43.
Lago, D.
, C. M. Connell, and B. Knight1983"A companion animal program," pp. 165-184 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
44.
Lansberg, G.
, W. D. Neigher, R. J. Hanimer, C., Windle, and J. R. Woy1979Evaluation in Practice: A Sourcebook of Program Evaluation Studies from Mental Health Care Systems in the United States. DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 80-763. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Mental Health.
45.
Lave, J. R.
and H. A. Silverman1983"Financing the health care of the aged."Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science468: 149-164.
46.
Lazarus, L. W.
, B. Stafford, K. Cooper, B. Kohler, and M. Dysken1981"A pilot study of an Alzheimer's patients' relatives discussion group."Gerontologist21: 353-358.
47.
Levy, S. M.
, L. R. Derogatis, D. Gallagher, and M. Gatz1980"Intervention with older adults and the evaluation of outcome," pp. 41-61 in L. Poon (ed.) Aging in the 1980s. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
48.
Lewinsohn, P. M.
, R. F. Munoz, M. A. Youngren, and A. M. Zeiss1978Control Your Depression. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
49.
Lieberman, M. A.
and N. Gourash1979"Evaluating the effects of change groups on the elderly."Int. J. of Group Psychotherapy29: 283-304.
50.
Lumsdaine, A. A.
and C. A. Bennett1975"Assessing alternative conceptions of evaluation," pp. 525-553 in C. A. Bennett and A. A. Lumsdaine (eds.) Evaluation and Experiment: Some Critical Issues in Assessing Social Programs. New York: Academic Press.
51.
Mintz, J.
, J. Steuer, L. Jarvik1981"Psychotherapy with depressed elderly patients: research considerations."J. of Consulting and Clinical Psychology49: 542-548.
52.
Mitroff, I. I.1983"New methods for a new age," pp. 163-177 in E. Seidman (ed.) Handbook of Social Intervention. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
53.
Nesselroade, J. R.
and D. H. Ford1985"P-technique comes of age: multivariate, replicated, single-subject designs for research on older adults."Research on Aging7, 1: 46-80.
54.
Neugarten, B. L.
(ed.) 1982Age or Need?Public Policies for Older People. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
55.
Office of Technology Assessment1983Diagnosis Related Groups (DRGs) and the Medicare Program: Implications for Medical Technology-A Technical Memorandum. OTA-TM-H-17 (July). Washington, DC: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.
56.
Oriol, E. W.1982Aging in All Nations. Washington, DC: National Council on the Aging.
57.
Patterson, R. L.
, L. W. Dupree, D. A. Eberly, G. M. Jackson, J. J. O'Sullivan, L. A. Penner, and K. Dee-Kelly1982Overcoming Deficits of Aging: A Behavioral Treatment Approach. New York: Plenum.
58.
Penner, L. A.
, D. A. Eberly, and R. L. Patterson1983"Community-based skills training for elderly mental health clients," pp. 85-104 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
59.
Perkins, D.N.T.1977"Evaluating social intervention: a conceptual schema."Evaluation Q.1, 4: 639-656.
60.
Posavac, E. J.
and R. G. Carey1985Program Evaluation: Methods and Case Studies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
61.
Rappaport, J.1977Community Psychology: Values, Research, and Action. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
62.
Rappaport, J.
and J. M. Chinsky1974"Models for delivery of service from a historical and conceptual perspective."Professional Psychology5: 42-50.
63.
Reichenfeld, H.
, K. Csapo, L. Carriere, and R. C. Gardner1973"Evaluating the effect of activity programs on a geriatric ward."Gerontologist13: 305-310.
64.
Rodin, J.
, C. Cashman, and L. Desiderato forthcoming "Psychosocial interventions in aging focusing on enrichment and prevention," in M. Riley, A. Baum, and J. Matarazzo (eds.) Perspectives on Behavioral Medicine IV: Biomedical and Psychosocial Perspectives of Aging. New York: Academic Press.
65.
Roppel, C.
1985 "Mental health promotion program in California." Presented at the NMHA Commission on the Prevention of Mental and Emotional Disability, Alex- andria, VA, May.
66.
Rutman, L.1977Evaluation Research Methods: A Basic Guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
67.
Santos, J.
, R. Hubbard, D. Burdick, and M. Santos1983"Mental health outreach and the elderly," pp. 257-274 in M. A. Smyer and M. Gatz (eds.) Mental Health and Aging: Programs and Evaluations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
68.
Seidman, E.1983"Introduction," pp. 11-17 in E. Seidman(ed.) Handbook of Social Intervention. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
69.
Smyer, M. A.
1980 Long Term Care in Pennsylvania: Projections for 1990-2000. Gerontological Society Research Fellowship Report, prepared for the Pennsylvania Department of Aging, Harrisburg, PA.
70.
1984a"Life transitions and aging: implications for counseling older adults."The Counseling Psychologist12, 2: 17-28.
71.
1984b"Health-care costs: roots are still there."Philadelphia Inquirer, July1: 7f
72.
Smyer, M. A.
, B. W. Davis, and M. Cohn1982"A prevention approach to critical life events of the elderly."J. of Primary Prevention2: 195-205.
73.
Smyer, M. A.
and M. Frysinger forthcoming "Mental health interventions in the nursing home community," in M. P. Lawton and G. Maddox (eds.) Annual Review of Geriatrics and Gerontology, Vol. 5. New York: Springer.
74.
Smyer, M. A.
, S. M. McHale, R. Birkel, and R. Madle forthcoming "Impairments, handicapping environments, and disability: a lifespan perspective," in V. B. VanHasselt, P. S. Strain, and M. Hersen (eds.) Handbook of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. New York: Pergamon.
75.
Smyer, M. A.
, I. C. Siegler, and M. Gatz1976"Learning to live in a therapeutic community: a study of elderly inpatients."Int. J. of Aging and Human Development7, 2:189-193.
76.
Sterns, H. L.
, D. M. Weis, and S. E. Perkins1984"A conceptual approach to counseling older adults and their families."The Counseling Psychologist12, 2: 55-61.
77.
Steuer, J.1982"Psychotherapy for depressed elders," in D. G. Blazer (ed.) Depression in Late Life. St. Louis, MO: C. V. Mosby.
78.
Thompson, L. W.
, D. Gallagher, G. Nies, and D. Epstein1983"Evaluation of the effectiveness of professionals and nonprofessionals as instructors of 'coping with depression' classes for elders."Gerontologist23: 390-396.
79.
Troll, L. E.
, S. J. Miller, and R. C. Atchley1979Families in Later Life. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
80.
United Nations1982World Assembly on Aging Introductory Document: Developmental Issues. Vienna: United Nations World Assembly on Aging.
81.
United States House of Representatives, Select Committee on Aging1984U.S. Perspectives: International Action on Aging. Committee Publication No. 98-478. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
82.
Wellman, F. E.
and J. McCormack1984"Counseling with older persons: a review of outcome research."The Counseling Psychologist12, 2: 81-96.
83.
Zarit, S. H.
, N. K. Orr, and J. M. Zarit1985The Hidden Victims of Alzheimer's Disease: Families Under Stress. New York: New York Univ. Press.