Grandchild Caregiving and Social Activities Participation Among Rural Grandparents in China: Does Rural-To-Urban Migration Matter?

Abstract

Using nationally representative data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2018 and the fixed effects model, we examine the association between grandchild caregiving and rural grandparents’ participation in social activities in China. We further explore whether this association varies across non-migrant and migrant rural grandparents, as well as how this migration-related heterogeneity varies by gender. The results reveal that grandchild caregiving was positively associated with participation in at least one social activity among rural grandparents, primary driven by nonintensive caregiving. Migration-based heterogeneity indicates that this positive association was observed only among non-migrant rural grandparents. Meanwhile, among those who had already participated in at least one activity, grandchild caregiving was associated with a greater number of activity types and a higher frequency of participation among migrant rural grandparents. Further analysis by gender indicates that this migration-based heterogeneity pattern was observed only among grandfathers. Our findings offer important policy implications in the context of rapid population aging and urbanization in contemporary China as well as in other developing countries.

Keywords

grandparenting social activities participation rural-to-urban migration gender rural China

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agree

E. M.

Glaser

(2009). Demography of informal caregiving. In Uhlenberg

(Ed.), International handbook of population aging (pp. 647–668): Springer.

Arpino

Bordone

(2017). Regular provision of grandchild care and participation in social activities. Review of Economics of the Household, 15, 135–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9322-4

Ates

Bordone

Arpino

(2022). Does grandparental child-care provision affect number, satisfaction and with whom leisure activities are done? Ageing and Society, 42(10), 2370–2392. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X2100009X

Baker

L. A.

Cahalin

L. P.

Gerst

Burr

J. A.

(2005). Productive activities and subjective well-being among older adults: The influence of number of activities and time commitment. Social Indicators Research, 73, 431–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-0805-6

Bulanda

J. R.

Jendrek

M. P.

(2016). Grandparenting roles and volunteer activity. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 71(1), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu033

Butler

R. N.

Gleason

H. P.

(1985). Productive aging: Enhancing vitality in later life. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4160-6231-8.10032-7

Cattan

White

Bond

Learmouth

(2005). Preventing social isolation and loneliness among older people: A systematic review of health promotion interventions. Ageing & society, 25(1), 41–67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X04002594

Chan

A. C. Y.

Lee

S. K.

Zhang

Banegas

Marsalis

Gewirtz

A. H.

(2022). Intensity of grandparent caregiving, health, and well-being in cultural context: A systematic review. The Gerontologist, 63(5), 851–873. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnac026

Chen

Liu

(2012). The health implications of grandparents caring for grandchildren in China. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67(1), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbr132

10.

Chen

Mair

C. A.

Yang

Y. C.

(2015). Race/ethnic differentials in the health consequences of caring for grandchildren for grandparents. The Journals of Gerontology, 70(5), 793–803. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu160

11.

Chen

Tsai

C. T. L.

(2020). Rural-urban divide and the social stratification in leisure participation in China: Application of multiple hierarchy stratification perspective. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 15(5), 1535–1548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-019-09750-z

12.

Choi

S. W. E.

Zhang

(2021). Caring as curing: Grandparenting and depressive symptoms in China. Social Science & Medicine, 289, 114452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114452

13.

Chu

Lee

C. Y.

Suona

Gao

Chen

Zhang

Chiang

Y. C.

(2022). Improving the sense of city belonging among migrant elderly following family from an elderly service perspective: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 2032. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14445-6

14.

Coall

D. A.

Hertwig

(2011). Grandparental investment: A relic of the past or a resource for the future? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(2), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411403269

15.

Cong

Silverstein

(2008). Intergenerational time-for-money exchanges in rural China: Does reciprocity reduce depressive symptoms of older grandparents? Research in Human Development, 5(1), 6–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427600701853749

16.

Cong

Silverstein

(2012). Caring for grandchildren and intergenerational support in rural China: A gendered extended family perspective. Ageing and Society, 32(3), 425–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X11000420

17.

Cui

Yang

(2025). Accessibility of basic public health service promotes social integration of elderly migrants in China. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 10685. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95146-z

18.

Danielsbacka

Tanskanen

A. O.

Coall

D. A.

Jokela

(2019). Grandparental childcare, health and well-being in Europe: A within-individual investigation of longitudinal data. Social Science & Medicine, 230, 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.03.031

19.

Di Gessa

Glaser

Tinker

(2016). The impact of caring for grandchildren on the health of grandparents in Europe: A lifecourse approach. Social Science & Medicine, 152, 166–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.01.041

20.

Ding

Song

Yuan

Zhang

Feng

Chen

Liu

(2018). The physical activity patterns among rural Chinese adults: Data from China national nutrition and health survey in 2010–2012. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(5), 941. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15050941

21.

Dou

Liu

(2017). Elderly migration in China: Types, patterns, and determinants. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 36(6), 751–771. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464815587966

22.

Fang

E. F.

Scheibye-Knudsen

Jahn

H. J.

Ling

Guo

Zhu

Preedy

Bohr

V. A.

Chan

W. Y.

Liu

T. B.

(2015). A research agenda for aging in China in the 21st century. Ageing Research Reviews, 24, 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2015.08.003

23.

Glass

T. A.

De Leon

C. M.

Marottoli

R. A.

Berkman

L. F.

(1999). Population based study of social and productive activities as predictors of survival among elderly Americans. BMJ, 319(7208), 478–483. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.319.7208.478

24.

Goode

W. J.

(1960). A theory of role strain. American Sociological Review, 483–496. https://doi.org/10.2307/2092933

25.

Grundy

E. M.

Albala

Allen

Dangour

A. D.

Elbourne

Uauy

(2012). Grandparenting and psychosocial health among older Chileans: A longitudinal analysis. Aging & Mental Health, 16(8), 1047–1057. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2012.692766

26.

Guo

Chi

Silverstein

(2017). Intergenerational support and depression among Chinese older adults: Do gender and widowhood make a difference? Ageing and Society, 37(4), 695–724. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X15001403

27.

Havighurst

R. J.

(1961). Successful aging. The Gerontologist, 1(1), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/1.1.8

28.

Zhang

Zhuang

Y. E.

Wang

Jiang

(2019). China fertility report, 2006–2016: An analysis based on China fertility survey 2017. China Population and Development Studies, 2, 430–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42379-018-0018-8

29.

Cui

Liang

Zhong

Huang

(2017). Social participation, willingness and quality of life: A population-based study among older adults in rural areas of China. Geriatrics and Gerontology International, 17(10), 1593–1602. https://doi.org/10.1111/ggi.12939

30.

Hou

Nazroo

Banks

Marshall

(2019). Impacts of migration on health and well-being in later life in China: Evidence from the China health and retirement longitudinal study (CHARLS). Health & Place, 58, 102073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2019.01.003

31.

Hughes

M. E.

Waite

L. J.

LaPierre

T. A.

Luo

(2007). All in the family: The impact of caring for grandchildren on grandparents' health. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62(2), S108–S119. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/62.2.S108

32.

Jennings

E. A.

Farrell

M. T.

Kobayashi

L. C.

(2021). Grandchild caregiving and cognitive health among grandparents in rural South Africa. Journal of Aging and Health, 33(9), 661–673. https://doi.org/10.1177/08982643211006592

33.

Katz

(2009). Intergenerational family relations and subjective well-being in old age: A cross-national study. European Journal of Ageing, 6(2), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-009-0113-0

34.

Keyes

C. L. M.

(2006). Subjective well-being in mental health and human development research worldwide: An introduction. Social Indicators Research, 77(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-5550-3

35.

Kim

Park

Choi

Lee

S. G.

(2017). The impact of intensive grandchild care on depressive symptoms among older Koreans. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 32(12), 1381–1391. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4625

36.

Kim

Katagiri

(2024). Connecting threads: Social participation’s role in reducing loneliness among older adults. Innovation in Aging, 8(Suppl 1), 1002. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igae098.3227

37.

P. C.

Hank

(2014). Grandparents caring for grandchildren in China and Korea: Findings from CHARLS and KLoSA. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(4), 646–651. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt129

38.

Komonpaisarn

Loichinger

(2019). Providing regular care for grandchildren in Thailand: An analysis of the impact on grandparents’ health. Social Science & Medicine, 229, 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.05.031

39.

Levasseur

Richard

Gauvin

Raymond

É.

(2010). Inventory and analysis of definitions of social participation found in the aging literature: Proposed taxonomy of social activities. Social Science & Medicine, 71(12), 2141–2149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.09.041

40.

Gao

(2024). Does intergenerational caregiving affect social participation of the elderly? Labor Economics Research, 12(04), 91–116. [in Chinese].

41.

Litwin

Shiovitz-Ezra

(2011). Social network type and subjective well-being in a national sample of older Americans. The Gerontologist, 51(3), 379–388. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnq094

42.

Liu

Lou

V. W.

(2017). Patterns of productive activity engagement as a longitudinal predictor of depressive symptoms among older adults in urban China. Aging & Mental Health, 21(11), 1147–1154. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1204983

43.

Liu

Lou

W. Q.

(2016). Patterns of productive activity engagement among older adults in urban China. European Journal of Ageing, 13, 361–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-016-0387-y

44.

Liu

Pei

(2022). Gendered leisure time-use and its impact on cognitive function among older adults in rural China. Ageing and Society, 42(11), 2533–2555. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X21000118

45.

Liu

Huang

Zhang

(2018). Residential segregation and perceptions of social integration in Shanghai, China. Urban Studies, 55(7), 1484–1503. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098016689012

46.

Luo

Pan

Zhang

(2019). Productive activities and cognitive decline among older adults in China: Evidence from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. Social Science & Medicine, 229, 96–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.09.052

47.

Matz-Costa

Carr

D. C.

McNamara

T. K.

James

J. B.

(2016). Physical, cognitive, social, and emotional mediators of activity involvement and health in later life. Research on Aging, 38(7), 791–815. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027515606182

48.

McNamara

T. K.

Gonzales

(2011). Volunteer transitions among older adults: The role of human, social, and cultural capital in later life. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 66(4), 490–501. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbr055

49.

Mehta

K. K.

Thang

L. L.

(Eds.), (2012). Experiencing grandparenthood. (47). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2303-0

50.

Minkler

(1999). Intergenerational households headed by grandparents: Contexts, realities, and implications for policy. Journal of Aging Studies, 13(2), 199–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0890-4065(99)80051-6

51.

Moen

Robison

Dempster-McClain

(1995). Caregiving and women’s well-being: A life course approach. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(3), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137342

52.

National Health Commission of China . (2018). China floating population development report. Available at. https://www.nhc.gov.cn/wjw/xwdt/201812/a32a43b225a740c4bff8f2168b0e9688.shtml

53.

National Health Commission of China . (2021). China aging population development report. Available at. https://www.nhc.gov.cn/lljks/pqt/202110/c794a6b1a2084964a7ef45f69bef5423.shtml

54.

Nikoloski

Zhang

Hopkin

Mossialos

(2019). Self-reported symptoms of depression among Chinese rural-to-urban migrants and left-behind family members. JAMA Network Open, 2(5), e193355. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.3355

55.

Niu

(2024). Does urban–rural integration reduce rural poverty? Agribusiness. https://doi.org/10.1002/agr.21935

56.

O'Reilly

Caro

F. G.

(1995). Productive aging: An overview of the literature. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 6(3), 39–71. https://doi.org/10.1300/J031v06n03_05

57.

Putnam

R. D.

(2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.

58.

Quirke

König

H. H.

Hajek

(2021). What are the social consequences of beginning or ceasing to care for grandchildren? Evidence from an asymmetric fixed effects analysis of community dwelling adults in Germany. Aging & Mental Health, 25(5), 969–975. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1727846

59.

Rowe

J. W.

Kahn

R. L.

(1997). Successful aging. The Gerontologist, 37(4), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/37.4.433

60.

Santini

Z. I.

Jose

P. E.

Koyanagi

Meilstrup

Nielsen

Madsen

K. R.

Koushede

(2020). Formal social participation protects physical health through enhanced mental health: A longitudinal mediation analysis using three consecutive waves of the survey of health, ageing and retirement in Europe (SHARE). Social Science & Medicine, 251, 112906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112906

61.

Schaller

Stevens

A. H.

(2015). Short-run effects of job loss on health conditions, health insurance, and health care utilization. Journal of Health Economics, 43, 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2015.07.003

62.

Sieber

S. D.

(1974). Toward a theory of role Accumulation. American Sociological Review, 39(4), 567–578. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094422

63.

Silverstein

Cong

(2013). Grandparenting in rural China. Generations, 37(1), 46–52.

64.

Silverstein

Parker

M. G.

(2002). Leisure activities and quality of life among the oldest old in Sweden. Research on Aging, 24(5), 528–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027502245003

65.

Silverstein

Zuo

(2021). Grandparents caring for grandchildren in rural China: Consequences for emotional and cognitive health in later life. Aging & Mental Health, 25(11), 2042–2052. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1852175

66.

Strauss

(2021). Multiple engagement: The relationship between informal care-giving and formal volunteering among Europe’s 50+ population. Ageing and Society, 41(7), 1562–1586. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X19001764

67.

Tang

Xie

(2023). Whose migration matters? The role of migration in social networks and mental health among rural older adults in China. Ageing and Society, 43(6), 1389–1408. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X21001197

68.

Tang

Chi

Dong

(2016). Psychological well-being of older Chinese-American grandparents caring for grandchildren. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 64(11), 2356–2361. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.14455

69.

The State Council of the People's Republic of China . (2022). 14th Five-year plan for national aging development and elderly care service system. Available at. https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2022-02/21/content_5674844.htm

70.

Timoneda

J. C.

(2021). Estimating group fixed effects in panel data with a binary dependent variable: How the LPM outperforms logistic regression in rare events data. Social Science Research, 93, 102486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102486

71.

Townsend

B. G.

Chen

J. T.

Wuthrich

V. M.

(2021). Barriers and facilitators to social participation in older adults: A systematic literature review. Clinical Gerontologist, 44(4), 359–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2020.1863890

72.

Wang

J. J.

Lai

D. W.

(2022). Mental health of older migrants migrating along with adult children in China: A systematic review. Ageing and Society, 42(4), 786–811. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X20001166

73.

Wang

Chen

Zhou

Shen

Zhang

(2019). Melancholy or mahjong? Diversity, frequency, type, and rural-urban divide of social participation and depression in middle- and old-aged Chinese: A fixed-effects analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 238, 112518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112518

74.

Wang

S. A.

(2022). Grandparenting and subjective well-being in China: The moderating effects of residential location, gender, age, and income. Social Science & Medicine, 315, 115528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115528

75.

Wang

Gonzales

(2019). Examining the prevalence, risk and protective factors to family caregiving in China: Findings from CHARLS. China Journal of Social Work, 12(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17525098.2019.1591697

76.

Wang

Zhu

Aziz

Liu

(2023). Does social capital improve the effectiveness of public service? An insight from rural-to-urban migrants in China. Social Indicators Research, 165(2), 431–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-022-03021-5

77.

Wong

Zhao

Tong

Chen

(2025). Socially withdrawn or socially engaged? The impacts of caring for grandchildren on social participation among older adults in China. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 80(6), gbaf054. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaf054

78.

World Health Organization (WHO) . (2002). Active ageing: A policy framework. World Health Organization.

79.

Xie

Wang

(2022). Chinese older adults' personal–family life balance and its associations with social networks: The moderating role of internet use. International Journal of Social Welfare, 31(4), 476–491. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsw.12540

80.

(2019). Physical and mental health of Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren and great-grandparents. Social Science & Medicine, 229, 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.05.047

81.

(2022). Grandparenting and cognitive functioning in China. Population Research and Policy Review, 41(1), 285–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-020-09628-1

82.

Tang

L. W.

Dong

X. Q.

(2017). Grandparent caregiving and psychological well-being among Chinese American older adults—the roles of caregiving burden and pressure. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 72(suppl_1), S56–62. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glw186

83.

Yalcin

B. M.

Pirdal

Karakoc

E. V.

Sahin

E. M.

Ozturk

Unal

(2018). General health perception, depression and quality of life in geriatric grandmothers providing care for grandchildren. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 79, 108–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2018.08.009

84.

Yang

(2021). Gender, capital endowment and digital exclusion of older people in China. Ageing and Society, 41(11), 2502–2526. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X20000434

85.

Yasuda

Iwai

Chin-chun

Guihua

(2011). Intergenerational coresidence in China, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan: Comparative analyses based on the East Asian social survey 2006. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 42(5), 703–722. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.42.5.703

86.

Zhao

Xie

(2020). Marriage and divorce in China: Trends and global comparison. Population Research, 44(5), 3–18. [in Chinese].

87.

Zaidi

Gasior

Hofmarcher

M. M.

Lelkes

Marin

Rodrigues

Schmidt

Vanhuysse

Zolyomi

(2013). Active ageing index 2012: Concept, methodology, and final results. European Centre.

88.

Zhang

You

Pundir

Meijering

(2023). Migrants' community participation and social integration in urban areas: A scoping review. Cities, 141, 104447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2023.104447

89.

Zhao

Zhou

Shen

Ibrahim

Zhao

Cao

Lai

(2021). Gender differences in depressive symptoms of rural Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren. BMC Public Health, 21, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11886-3

90.

Zhao

Chen

Wang

Meng

Chen

Gong

Jia

Wang

Yan

Yang

Zhou

(2020). The China health and retirement longitudinal study (CHARLS) Fourth wave (2018) user guide. Available at. https://charls.charlsdata.com/Public/ashelf/public/uploads/document/2018-charls-wave4/application/CHARLS_2018_Users_Guide.pdf

91.

Zhao

Smith

J. P.

Strauss

Yang

(2014). Cohort profile: The China health and retirement longitudinal study (CHARLS). International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dys203

92.

Zhao

Wang

Chen

Meng

Tang

Zhang

Hou

Liu

Zhang

(2019). The China health and retirement report. Available at. https://charls.pku.edu.cn/wenjian/zhongguojiankangyuyanglaobaogao.pdf

93.

Zimmer

Kwong

(2004). Socioeconomic status and health among older adults in rural and urban China. Journal of Aging and Health, 16(1), 44–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264303260440

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.42 MB