This study examines how retirees’ formal and informal social participation change over time and investigates gendered differences. Seven waves of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing track the frequency of social participation. A comparison group of employed individuals, weighted with coarsened exact matching, controls for age and time trends, and mixed model regressions estimate changes over time. Retirees show a gradual decline in the frequency of meeting friends and an abrupt decrease in the frequency of attending a social gathering, compared to their working peers. These trends are much stronger for men than women, and compound pre-existing gender differences in social participation. The more severe decline in the social participation of men is of great concern and points to the persistence of gendered employment structures into the retirement transition, putting Korean retirees at risk of social isolation and related health deterioration.
AngS. (2019). Life course social connectedness: Age-cohort trends in social participation. Advances in Life Course Research, 39, 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2019.02.002
2.
AntonucciT. C.AkiyamaH. (1987). Social networks in adult life and a preliminary examination of the convoy model. Journal of Gerontology, 42(5), 519–527. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/42.5.519
3.
AntunesM. H.MoréC. L. O. O. (2017). A systematic review of worldwide literature on social networks and retirement [Revisão sistemática da literatura internacional sobre aposentadoria e redes sociais]. Brazilian Journal of Professional Guidance [Revista Brasileira de Orientação Profissional], 18(1), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.26707/1984-7270/2017v18n1p57
BeehrT. A.AdamsG. A. (2003). Introduction and overview of current research and thinking about retirement. In AdamsG. A.BeehrT. A. (Eds.), Retirement: Reasons, processes, and results. Springer Publishing Company.
6.
BellA.FairbrotherM.JonesK. (2019). Fixed and random effects models: Making an informed choice. Quality & Quantity, 53(2), 1051–1074. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-018-0802-x
7.
BolanoD.ArpinoB. (2020). Life after death: Widowhood and volunteering gendered pathways among older adults. Demographic Research, 43, 581–616. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2020.43.21
8.
BookwalaJ. (2009). The impact of parent care on marital quality and well-being in adult daughters and sons. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 64B(3), 339–347. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp018
9.
BosséR.AldwinC. M.LevensonM. R.SpiroA.III.MroczekD. K. (1993). Change in social support after retirement: Longitudinal findings from the normative aging study. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 48(4), P210–P217. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/48.4.p210
10.
CarstensenL. L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7(3), 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1037//0882-7974.7.3.331
11.
CavanR. S.BurgessE. W.HavighurstR. J.GoldhamerH. (1949). Personal adjustment in old age. Science Research Associates.
12.
ChoK. [조규영]JunH. J. [전혜정]LeeE. J. [이은지] (2019). Types of retirement satisfaction and life satisfaction among middle and older adults: Focusing on gender differences [중고령자의 은퇴 만족 유형과 삶의 만족도: 성별에 따른 차이를 중심으로]. Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial Cooperation Society [한국산학기술학회논문지], 20(4), 371–381.
13.
CongZ.SilversteinM. (2008). Intergenerational support and depression among elders in rural China: Do daughters-in-law matter?Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(3), 599–612. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00508.x
14.
CornwellB.LaumannE. O.SchummL. P. (2008). The social connectedness of older adults: A national profile. American Sociological Review, 73(2), 185–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300201
15.
CummingE.HenryW. E. (1961). Growing old, the process of disengagement. Basic Books.
16.
DonnellanW. J.BennettK. M.SoulsbyL. K. (2017). Family close but friends closer: Exploring social support and resilience in older spousal dementia carers. Aging & Mental Health, 21(11), 1222–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1209734
17.
EismannM.VerbeijT.HenkensK. (2019). Older workers’ plans for activities in retirement: The role of opportunities, spousal support, and time perception. Psychology and Aging, 34(5), 738–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000377
18.
FelixC.RosanoC.ZhuX.FlattJ. D.RossoA. L. (2021). Greater social engagement and greater gray matter microstructural integrity in brain regions relevant to dementia. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 76(6), 1027–1035. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa173
19.
FinkelD.AndelR.PedersenN. L. (2018). Gender differences in longitudinal trajectories of change in physical, social, and cognitive/sedentary leisure activities. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 73(8), 1491–1500. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw116
GrünwaldO.DammanM.HenkensK. (2021). The differential impact of retirement on informal caregiving, volunteering, and grandparenting: Results of a 3-year panel study. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 76(3), 607–619. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa221
23.
HanG. [한경혜]. (2008). Gender difference in retirement experience: A life course model [라이프코스 관점에서 본 은퇴경험의 남녀차이]. Korean Journal of Sociology [한국사회학], 42(3), 86–118.
24.
HyunM. K. (2018). Effect of work on medical expenditures by elderly: Findings from the Korean Health Panel 2008–2013. Safety and Health at Work, 9(4), 462–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2018.01.001
25.
IacusS. M.KingG.PorroG. (2012). Causal inference without balance checking: Coarsened exact matching. Political Analysis, 20, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpr013
26.
JangS.-N.KawachiI.ChangJ.BooK.ShinH.-G.LeeH.ChoS-J. (2009). Marital status, gender, and depression: Analysis of the baseline survey of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing (KLoSA). Social Science & Medicine, 69(11), 1608–1615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.007
27.
KailB. L.CarrD. C. (2020). Structural social support and changes in depression during the retirement transition: “I get by with a little help from my friends. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 75(9), 2040–2049. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz126
28.
KauppiM.VirtanenM.PenttiJ.AaltoV.KivimäkiM.VahteraJ.StenholmM. (2021). Social network ties before and after retirement: A cohort study. European Journal of Ageing, 1(4), 503–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-021-00604-y
29.
KimH. J. (2018). Grandparents providing care for grandchildren and employment status of grandparents in South Korea. Journal of Women & Aging, 30(1), 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2016.1259443
30.
KimH.-J.KangE. [강은나]BaeH. [배혜원]. (2016). [김현정]A qualitative study of the types of leisure perceptions among middle-aged men in retirement transition [은퇴전환기 남성 중고령자의 여가인식 유형화 연구]. Health and Social Welfare Review, 36(2), 192–226. [보건사회연구]https://doi.org/10.15709/hswr.2016.36.2.192
31.
KimJ. E.MoenP. (2002). Retirement transitions, gender, and psychological well-being: A life-course, ecological model. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(3), P212–P222. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.3.p212
32.
KimJ.-H.OhS. S.BaeS. W.ParkE.-C.JangS.-I. (2019). Gender discrimination in the workplace: Effects on pregnancy planning and childbirth among South Korean women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(15), 2672. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152672
33.
KimK.ZaritS. H.FingermanK. L.HanG. (2015). Intergenerational exchanges of middle-aged adults with their parents and parents-in-law in Korea. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 77(3), 791–805. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12185
34.
KoP.-C.HankK. (2014). Grandparents caring for grandchildren in China and Korea: Findings from CHARLS and KLoSA. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(4), 646–651. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt129
KwonH. [권혁창]KimJ. [김지현] (2020). The effects of national pension service on life satisfaction of the elderly: Focusing on the gender difference [국민연금이 노인의 생활만족도에 미치는 영향: 남녀차이를 중심으로]. The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 21 [인문사회 21], 11(6), 1961–1971. https://doi.org/10.22143/HSS21.11.6.138
38.
LaferrèreA. (2015). Personal network” and retirement: Is retirement bad for friendship and good for family relationships?INSEE working paper (p. F1410). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3835.8163
39.
LaferrèreA. (2016). Retired, but still active: Is retirement a springboard for new activities?Retraite et Société, 1, 89–118. https://doi.org/10.3917/rs.073.0089
40.
LeeC.LeeJ. (2013). Employment status, quality of matching, and retirement in Korea: Evidence from Korean longitudinal study of aging. Journal of Population Ageing, 6(1–2), 59–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12062-012-9080-x
41.
LeeY.YeungW.-J. J. (2019). Gender matters: Productive social engagement and the subsequent cognitive changes among older adults. Social Science & Medicine, 229, 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.024
42.
LeeY.YeungW.-J. J. (2021). The country that never retires: The gendered pathways to retirement in South Korea. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 76(3), 642–655. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa016
43.
LevasseurM.RichardL.GauvinL.RaymondÉ. (2010). Inventory and analysis of definitions of social participation found in the aging literature: Proposed taxonomy of social activities. Social Science & Medicine, 71(12), 2141–2149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.09.041
44.
Lim-SohJ. W. (2021). Social participation in widowhood: Evidence from a 12-year panel. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab072
45.
LucasR. E.ClarkA. E.GeorgellisY.DienerE. (2003). Reexamining adaptation and the set point model of happiness: Reactions to changes in marital status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(3), 527–539. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.84.3.527
MartinsonM.MinklerM. (2006). Civic engagement and older adults: A critical perspective. The Gerontologist, 46(3), 318–324. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/46.3.318
48.
Mor-BarakM. E.ScharlachA. E.BirbaL.SokolovJ. (1992). Employment, social networks, and health in the retirement years. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 35(2), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.2190/TVEV-FU7E-NE33-TKYC
49.
NohJ.-W.KwonY. D.LeeL. J.OhI.-H.KimJ. (2019). Gender differences in the impact of retirement on depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older adults: A propensity score matching approach. Plos One, 14(3), Article e0212607. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212607
ParkH.-J. (2021). Does filial piety still matter? A filiality-based perspective on intergenerational solidarity and cooperation. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 19(1), 78–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2021.1868232
54.
ParkJ. [박진화]. (2020). A study on the change of gender gap inherent in the national pension system: Focusing on external and internal reform of the system [국민연금제도에 내재된 젠더 차이 변화 연구: 제도의 외적 및 내적개혁을 중심으로]. The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2111(1), 1287–1299. 인문사회 21. https://doi.org/10.22143/hss21.11.1.94
55.
ParkS.SmithJ.DunkleR. E. (2014). Social network types and well-being among South Korean older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 18(1), 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2013.801064
56.
ParkS.-M. (2017). The gendered impact of the national pension scheme on late-life economic well-being: Evidence from the Korean retirement and income study. Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 18(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1108/QAOA-01-2015-0002
57.
ParkY. J. [박윤자]. (2015). A study on the elderly policies in South Korea and policy implications [한국적 노인정책의 현황과 정책적 방향에 대한 연구. 지역복지정책] (Vol. 26, pp. 73–86). Korea Community Welfare Policy Association. [지역복지정책].
58.
PatacchiniE.EngelhardtG. V. (2016). Work, retirement, and social networks at older ages. SSRN Electronic Journal, 15. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2867594. Center for Retirement Research Working Paper.
59.
PhillipsonC. (2019). ‘Fuller’ or ‘extended’ working lives? Critical perspectives on changing transitions from work to retirement. Ageing & Society, 39(3), 629–650. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X18000016
60.
PintoJ. M.NeriA. L. (2017). Trajectories of social participation in old age: A systematic literature review. Revista Brasileira de Geriatria e Gerontologia, 20(2), 259–272. https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-22562017020.160077
61.
RaudenbushS. W.BrykA. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (Vol. 1). Sage.
SabbathE. L.LubbenJ.GoldbergM.ZinsM.BerkmanL. F. (2015). Social engagement across the retirement transition among “young-old” adults in the French GAZEL cohort. European Journal of Ageing, 12(4), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-015-0348-x
64.
SonY. K. [손유경]ChoiS. M. [최성문]. (2020). The effects of preparation for later life on life satisfaction after retirement: Focused on gender difference [중·고령자의 노후준비가 은퇴 후 생활만족도에 미치는 영향: 성별 차이를 중심으로]. Social Work Practice & Research [사회복지 실천과 연구], 17(2), 5–40. https://doi.org/10.38082/swpr.2020.17.02.5
65.
StevensM.CruwysT.HaslamC.WangV. (2021). Social group memberships, physical activity, and physical health following retirement: A six-year follow-up from the English longitudinal study of ageing. British Journal of Health Psychology, 26(2), 505–524. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12506
66.
Van TilburgT. (2003). Consequences of men’s retirement for the continuation of work-related personal relationships. Ageing International, 28(4), 345–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-003-1008-6
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
