New Structure,Traditional Essence: Patterns of Helping Non-Coresident Parents by Own and Sibling(s)’ Gender in China

Abstract

As Chinese households are becoming smaller with increasing numbers of adult children and older parents living apart, the extent to which patterns of parental support reflect traditional gender dynamics is under debate. Integrating theories of sibling compensation with ceremonial giving, we tested whether helping non-coresident parents in China is affected by sibship size and how these patterns depend on own and sibling(s)’ gender using a sample of 4,359 non-coresident parent-child dyads nesting within 3,285 focal adult children from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study 2013. Opposite to patterns in the United States and Europe, we found substitutions of daughters with sons—having more brothers was associated with daughters’ reduced probabilities and hours of helping. Sons’ patterns of helping were independent of number of brothers and sisters in the family, consistent with the theory of ceremonial giving. These findings reflect the dominance of traditional family dynamics despite changes in family structure.

Keywords

intergenerational relations sibling compensation gender structural and cultural determinants comparative perspective

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Barer

B. M.

Johnson

C. L.

(1990). A critique of the caregiving literature. Gerontologist, 30(1), 26–29. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/30.1.26

Bell

Morgan

Kromrey

Ferron

(2010). The impact of small cluster size on multilevel models: A Monte Carlo examination of two-level models with binary and continuous predictors. JSM Proceedings, Section on Survey Research Methods, 4057–4067. http://www.amstat.org/sections/srms/Proceedings/y2010/Files/308112_60089.pdf

Bian

Logan

J. R.

Bian

(1998). Intergenerational relations in urban China: Proximity, contact, and help to parents. Demography, 35(1), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.2307/3004031

Bonsang

(2007). How do middle-aged children allocate time and money transfers to their older parents in Europe? Empirica, 34(2), 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-007-9034-3

Cantor

M. H.

(1979). Neighbors and friends: An overlooked resource in the informal support system. Research on Aging, 1(4), 434–463.

CHARLS. (2013). China health and retirement longitudinal study. http://charls.pku.edu.cn/zh-CN

Chen

Silverstein

(2000). Intergenerational social support and the psychological well-being of older parents in China. Research on Aging, 22(1), 43–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027500221003

Chodorow

N. J.

(1978). The reproduction of motherhood: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender. University of California Press.

Clarke

(2008). When can group level clustering be ignored? Multilevel models versus single-level models with sparse data. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(8), 752–758. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2007.060798

10.

Clarke

Wheaton

(2007). Addressing data sparseness in contextual population research: Using cluster analysis to create synthetic neighborhoods. Sociological Methods & Research, 35(3), 311–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/00491241062923

11.

Cong

Silverstein

(2008). Intergenerational support and depression among elders in rural China: Do daughters-in-law matter? Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(3), 599–612. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00508.x

12.

Cong

Silverstein

(2012a). A vignette study on gendered filial expectations of elders in rural China. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(3), 510–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00970.x

13.

Cong

Silverstein

(2012b). Caring for grandchildren and intergenerational support in rural China. Ageing and Society, 32(3).

14.

Couch

K. .

Daly

M. C.

Wolf

D. A.

(1999). Time? Money? Both? The allocation of resources to older parents. Demography, 36(2), 219–232. https://doi.org/10.2307/2648110

15.

Crader

K. W.

Wentworth

W. M.

(1984). A structural reinterpretation of responsibility, risk and helping in small collectives of children. American Sociological Review, 49(5), 611. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095419

16.

Dono

J. E.

Falbe

C. M.

Kail

B. L.

Litwak

Sherman

R. H.

Siegel

(1979). Primary groups in old age. Research on Aging, 1(4), 403–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/016402757914001

17.

Eggebeen

D. J.

(1992). Family structure and intergenerational exchanges. Research on Aging, 14(4), 427–447.

18.

England

(2005). Emerging theories of care work. Annual Review of Sociology, 31(1), 381–399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.31.041304.122317

19.

Fei

H.-T.

(1943). Peasant life in China. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.

20.

Fei

H.-T.

(1983). The issue of elderly support in family structural changes: Revisit family structure changes in China. Journal of Peking University(Humanities and Social Sciences), 3, 7–16. (in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004

21.

Gardner

Mulvey

E. P.

Shaw

E. C.

(1995). Regression analyses of counts and rates: Poisson, overdispersed poisson, and negative binomial models. Psychological Bulletin, 118(3), 392–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.118.3.392

22.

Gilligan

(1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Harvard University Press.

23.

Goldstein

Bryk

A. S.

Raudenbush

S. W.

(1993). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 88(421), 386. https://doi.org/10.2307/2290750

24.

Goode

(1963). Industrialization and family change. In Hoselitz

B. F.

(Eds.), Industrialization and society (pp. 237–255). UNESCO.

25.

Greenhalgh

(1985). Sexual stratification: The other side of “Growth with equity “in East Asia. Population and Development Review, 11(2), 265–314. https://doi.org/10.2307/1973489

26.

Grimm

(2010). Social desirability bias. In Wiley international encyclopedia of marketing. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem02057

27.

Gruijters

R. J.

Ermisch

(2019). Patrilocal, matrilocal, or neolocal? Intergenerational proximity of married couples in China. Journal of Marriage and Family, 81(3), 549–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12538

28.

Guo

Chi

Silverstein

(2015). Trajectories and determinants of elder care in rural china during an 8-year period: Why having sons makes a difference. Research on Aging, 38(5), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027515593346

29.

Guo

Zhang

(1996). Dui zinv shuliang zai laonianren gongyang zhong zuoyong de zai jianyan [Retest the effect of family size on financial support]. Population Research (in Chinese), 2, 7–15.

30.

Hausman

Hall

Griliches

(1984). Econometric models for count data with an application to the patents-R&D relationship. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/t0017

31.

Hogan

D. P.

Eggebeen

D. J.

Clogg

C. C.

(1993). The structure of intergenerational exchanges in American families. American Journal of Sociology, 98(6), 1428–1458. https://doi.org/10.1086/230194

32.

Kaneda

Zimmer

Zhang

(2015). Explaining the urban-rural divergence in disability among older Chinese using a large scale national dataset. Statewide Agricultural Land Use Baseline 2015, 1, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004

33.

Lang

(1946). Chinese family and society. Yale University Press.

34.

Lesthaeghe

(2015). Second demographic transition. In The Blackwell encyclopedia of sociology. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeoss059.pub2

35.

Dai

(2019). Determining the primary caregiver for disabled older adults in mainland china: Spouse priority and living arrangements. Journal of Family Therapy, 41(1), 126–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6427.12213

36.

Logan

J. R. .

Bian

(1998). Tradition and change in the urban Chinese family: The case of living arrangements. Social Forces, 76(3), 851–882. https://doi.org/10.2307/3005696

37.

Logan

J. R.

Bian

(2003). Parents’ needs, family structure, and regular intergenerational financial exchange in Chinese cities. Sociological Forum, 18(1), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022654728800

38.

Logan

J. R.

Spitze

G. D

. (1996). Family composition and intergenerational ties. In Family ties: Enduring relations between parents and their grown children (pp. 56–80). Temple University Press.

39.

Long

J. S.

Freese

(2006). Regression models for categorical dependent variables using Stata (2nd ed.). Stata PRess Publications.

40.

Luke

(2004). Multilevel modeling. Sage.

41.

Mancini

J. A.

Blieszner

(1989). Aging parents and adult children: Research themes in intergenerational relations. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(2), 275. https://doi.org/10.2307/352492

42.

Marsden

P. V.

(2002). Egocentric and sociocentric measures of network centrality. Social Networks, 24(4), 407–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8733(02)00016-3

43.

Matthews

S. H.

Rosner

T. T.

(1988). Shared filial responsibility: The family as the primary caregiver. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50(1), 185. https://doi.org/10.2307/352438

44.

National Bureau of Statistics of P.R.C. (2010). The sixth national population census. National Bureau of Statistics of P.R.C.

45.

Norton

E. C.

Van Houtven

C. H.

(2006). Inter-vivos transfers and exchange. Southern Economic Journal, 73(1), 157. https://doi.org/10.2307/20111880

46.

Parsons

(1937). The structure of social action: Vol. I. McGrawHill.

47.

Rabe-Hesketh

Skrondal

(2008). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata. (2nd ed.). Stata Press Publication. https://doi.org/10.1198/tas.2006.s56

48.

Raudenbush

S. W.

(2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis method (A. S. Bry, ed.). Sage.

49.

Simmel

(1908). Subordination under a principle. In Wolff

(Ed.), The sociology of Georg Simmel (pp. 250–267). Free Press.

50.

Spitze

Logan

J. R.

(1991). Sibling structure and intergenerational relations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 53(4), 871–884. https://doi.org/10.2307/352994

51.

Tolkacheva

Broese van Groenou

van Tilburg

(2010). Sibling influence on care given by children to older parents. Research on Aging, 32(6), 739–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027510383532

52.

Townsend

(1968). The structure of the family. In Shanas

Townsend

Wedderburn

Friis

Milhoj

Stehouwer

(Eds.), Old people in three industrial societies (pp. 133–176). Routlege & Kegan Paul.

53.

Walker

A. J.

Pratt

C. C.

(1991). Daughters’ help to mothers: Intergenerational aid versus caregiving. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.2307/353129

54.

Wolf

D. A.

Freedman

Soldo

B. J.

(1997). The division of family labor: Care for elderly parents. The Journals of Gerontology Series B, 52B(1990), 102–109. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/52B.Special_Issue.102

55.

Xie

(2009). Laoren de juzhu moshi yu zinv de shanyang xingwei [Living arrangement of the older people and the modes of support from adult children]. Society, 5(29), 1–19.

56.

Xie

Zhu

(2009). Do sons or daughters give more money to parents in urban China? Journal of Marriage and Family, 71(1), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00588.x

57.

Yan

(2003). Private life under socialism: Love, intimacy and family change in a Chinese village, 1949-1999. Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1353/cri.2006.0051

58.

Yan

(2010). The Chinese path to individualization. British Journal of Sociology, 61(3), 489–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2010.01323.x

59.

Zhan

H. J.

Montgomery

R. J. V. V.

(2003). Gender and elder care in China: The influence of filial piety and structural constraints. Gender & Society, 17(2), 209–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243202250734

60.

Zhao

Smith

J. P.

Strauss

Yang

(2014). Cohort profile: The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dys203

61.

Zimmer

Kwong

(2003). Family size and support of older adults in urban and rural China: Current effects and future implications. Demography, 40(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2003.0010

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.75 MB