Cultural and media policies were a key part of the mechanisms of atrocity in the Holocaust. This article looks at the context and implications of some of these policies and argues that, while racism and ethnic exclusion are fundamental to our understanding of the Holocaust and primary to the way in which cultural policies were formulated and used, it is also significant that these were refracted through particular constructions and articulations based on gender.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Balfour, M. (1979) Propaganda in War 1939-1945: Organisations, Policies and Publics in Britain and Germany.London: Routledge.
2.
Barkai, A. (1989) From Boycott to Annihilation: The Economic Struggle of German Jews, 1933-1943.Hanover, PA: University Press of New England.
3.
Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Munich (1931) Abt I, SO I/1529; Files of the Munich Police, 17 Aug.
4.
Beale, A. (1998) `Cultural Policy as a Technology of Gender', pp. 223-46 in A. Beale and A. Van Den Bosch (eds) Ghosts in the Machine: Women and Cultural Policy in Canada and Australia.Toronto: Garamond Press.
5.
Bielenberg. C. (1984) The Past is Myself.London: Corgi.
6.
Boak, H.L. (1989) `Our Last Hope: Women's Votes for Hitler', German Studies Review12: 289-310.
7.
Bock, Gisela (1984) `Racism and Sexism in Nazi Germany: Motherhood, Compulsory Sterilization, and the State', in R. Bridenthalet al. (eds) When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany.New York: Monthly Review Press.
8.
Bondy, R. (1998) `Women in Theresienstadt and the Family Camp in Birkenau', pp. 310-26 in D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzman (eds) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.
9.
Bridenthal, R. , A. Grossman and M. Kaplan (eds) (1984) When Biology Becomes Destiny.New York: Monthly Review Press.
10.
Broad, P. (1972) `Reminiscences', in KL Auschwitz Seen by the SS: Rudolf Hoss, Pery Broad, Johann Paul Kremer.Oswiecim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.
De Lauretis, T. (1987) Technologies of Gender: Essays on Theory, Film and Fiction.Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
13.
De Silva, C. (ed.) (1996) In Memory's Kitchen: A Legacy from the Women of Terezin.Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
14.
Dines, G. , R. Jensen and A. Russo (1998) Pornography: The Production and Consumption of Inequality.New York: Routledge.
15.
Dobrowszynski, L. (ed.) (1984) The Chronicles of the Lodz Ghetto 1941-1944.New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.
16.
Dobrowszynski, L. (1994) Reptile Journalism: The Official Polish Language Press under the Nazis 1939-1945.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
17.
Dworkin, A. (1981) Pornography: Men Possessing Women.New York: Perigree.
18.
Dyer, G.S. (1989) `Feminist Perspectives on Media Law: Or Media Law as if Women Mattered', pp. 58-82 in P.J. Creedon (ed.) Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values.London: Sage.
19.
Eisenbach, A. (1957) `Dokumenty I materialy III', pp. 35-50 in T. Bernstein, A. Eisenbach and A. Rutkowski (eds) Eksterminacja Zydow na Ziemiach Polskich W Okresie Okupacji Hitlerowskiej: Zbior Dokumentow [The Extermination of the Jews on Polish Territory During Nazi Occupation: A Collection of Documents]. Warsaw: Zydowskie Instytut Historyczny.
20.
Felstiner, M.L. (1997) To Paint Her Life: Charlotte Salomon in the Nazi Era.Berkeley: University of California Press.
21.
Flinkter, M. (1971) Young Moshe's Diary: The Spiritual Torment of a Jewish Boy in Nazi Europe.Jerusalem: Yad Vashem.
22.
Frank, O. and M. Pressler (eds) (1997) Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl: The Definitive Edition.London: Puffin.
23.
Gilman, C.P. (1916) `Newspapers and Democracy II', The Forerunner7(12): 314-18.
24.
Goldenberg, M. (1996) `Lessons Learned from Gentle Heroism: Women's Holocaust Narratives', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science548 (Nov.): 87-92.
25.
Goldhagen, D.J. (1997) Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust.London: Abacus.
26.
Gonin, Lt-Col. M.W. (1945) `Report on the Liberation of Belsen', Imperial War Museum Archives, File 85/38/1.
27.
Haas, L. (1995) `The Affair of the Painters of Terezin', pp. 670-7, in L.L. Langer (ed.) Art From the Ashes: A Holocaust Anthology.Oxford.Oxford University Press
28.
Heinemann, M.E. (1986) Gender and Destiny: Women Writers and the Holocaust.Westport, CT: Greenwood.
29.
Hitler, A. (1992) Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim. London: Pimlico.
30.
Hoppner, R.H. (1971) `Letter From SS Sturmbannfuhrer Rolf Heinz Hoppner to SS Sturmbannfuhrer Adolf Eichmann, Posen, July 16, 1941', pp. 87-8 in R. Hilberg (ed.) Documents of Destruction: Germany and Jewry, 1933-1945.Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books. [See also text in Polish translation and copy of original in Biuletyn Glownej Komisji Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Posce 13 (1960).]
31.
Horowitz, S.R. (1994) `Memory and Testimony in Women Survivors of Nazi Genocide', pp. 258-82 in J. Baskin (ed.) Women of the Word: Jewish Women and Jewish Writing.Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.
32.
Horowitz, S.R. (1998) `Women in Holocaust Literature: Engendering Trauma Memory', pp. 364-78 in D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzman (eds) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven, CT and London.Yale University Press.
33.
Huyssen, A. (1995) Twilight Memories.London: Routledge.
34.
Hyman, P.E. (1995) Gender and Assimilation in Modern Jewish History: The Roles and Representations of Women.Seattle: University of Washington Press.
35.
Imperial War Museum (1945a) Mrs K. Eldridge, `Letter to a friend'; `Notes on Belsen camp: 102 Control Section', File 89/10/1.
36.
Imperial War Museum (1945b) `Reports on Team 100 at Belsen Camp', File 93/27/1.
37.
Imperial War Museum (1945c) `The Story of Belsen', 113.AA Regiment RA (DLI) TA Official Reports on the Liberation of Belsen Camp, File Misc. 104, Item 1650.
38.
Kaplan, M. (1976) `Bertha Pappenheim: Founder of German-Jewish Feminism', pp. 149-63 in E. Koltun (ed.) The Jewish Woman.New York: Schocken.
39.
Kaplan, M. (1979) The Jewish Feminist Movement in Germany.Westport, CT: Greenwood.
40.
Kaplan, M. (1991) The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family and Identity in Imperial Germany.New York: Oxford University Press.
41.
Karay, F. (1998) `Women in the Forced Labour Camps', pp. 285-309 in D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzman (eds) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.
42.
Koontz, C. (1984) `The Competition for Women's Lebensraum', in R. Bridenthalet al. (eds) When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany.New York: Monthly Review Press.
43.
Kornreich Gelissen, R. , with H. Dune Macadam (1997) Rena's Promise: The Story of Two Sisters in Auschwitz.London: Orion.
44.
Lacey, K. (1996) Feminine Frequencies: Gender, German Radio and the Public Sphere, 1923-1945.Michigan: University of Michigan.
45.
Langer, L. (1991) Holocaust Testimonies: The Ruins of Memory.New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.
46.
Langer, L. (1998) `Gendered Sufering? Women in Holocaust Testimonies', pp. 351-63 in D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzman (eds) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
47.
Laska, V. (ed.) (1983) Women in the Resistance and in the Holocaust: Voices of Eyewitnesses.Westport, CT and London: Greenwood.
48.
Levi, P. (1998) The Drowned and the Saved.London: Abacus.
49.
Mackinnon, C.A. (1983) `Feminism, Marxism, Method and the State: Towards Feminist Jurisprudence', Signs8(4): 635-58.
50.
Mann, M. (1994) `Persons, Households, Families, Lineages, Genders, Classes and Nations', pp. 177-94 in The Polity Reader in Gender Studies.London: Polity.
51.
Martin, E. (1993) Gender, Patriarchy and Fascism in the Third Reich: The Response of Women Writers.Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.
52.
Muszynscy, D. and L. (1995) Cementarz Zydowski w Lodzi [The Jewish Cemetary in Lodz].Lodz: Oficycna Bibliofilow.
53.
NSDAP (1995) `NSDAP's Programme, the Twenty Five Points: Selected Documents, Document 19' (1923), pp. 144-6 in Conan Fisher (1995) The Rise of the Nazis.Manchester: Manchester University Press.
54.
Ofer, D. (1998) `Gender Issues in Diaries and Testimonies of the Ghettos: The Case of Warsaw', pp. 143-68 in D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzman (eds) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven, CT and London.Yale University Press.
55.
Ofer, D. and Weitzman, L.J. (eds) (1998) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven and London.Yale University Press.
56.
Oldfield, p. (1987) `German Women in the Resistance to Hitler', p. 88 in S. Reynolds (ed.) Women, State and Revolution: Essays on Gender and Power in Europe since 1789.Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
57.
Pandian, H. (1997) `Yellow Butterflies and Mischief Makers: The State of Gender Policy in Asian Media Today', Media and Gender Monitor1 (Autumn): 1-3.
58.
Parkinson, J.M. (1945) Letter, 27 May. Imperial War Museum, File 93/27/1, pp. 1-3.
59.
Patterson, O. (1982) Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
60.
Phillips, A. (1991) Engendering Democracy.Oxford: Polity.
61.
Piotrowski, P. (1998) Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947.Jefferson, NC and London: McFarland.
62.
Proces Hossa (The Trial of Hoss) Archives of the Auschwitz State Museum, xx. 34.
63.
Reading, A. (1996) `Socially Inherited Memory, Gender and the Public Sphere: The Case of Poland', unpublished PhD thesis. University of Westminster.
64.
Reading, A. (1999) `Of Ladies and Lust: Campaigns to Change the Media', in J. Stokes and A. Reading (eds) Developments in British Media.London: Macmillan.
65.
Ringelblum, E. (1992) Last Writings, vol. 2. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem.
66.
Ringelhelm, J. (1998) `The Split between Gender and the Holocaust', pp. 340-50 in D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzman (eds) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.
67.
Rupp, L.J. (1978) Mobilizing Women for the War: German and American Propaganda 1939-1945.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
68.
Salomon, C. (1998) Life? Or Theatre?, with an Introduction by Judith C.E. Belinfante, Christine Fischer-Defoy, Ad Petersen and Norman Rosenthal. London: Royal Academy of Arts/Waanders.
69.
Shelley, L. (1992) Auschwitz: The Nazi Collection, Studies in the Shoah, vol. 1. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
70.
Stampfer, S. (1993) `Gender Differentiation and Education of the Jewish Woman in Nineteenth Century Eastern Europe', Polin7: 79.
71.
Stephenson, J. (1983) `Propaganda, Autarky and the German Housewife', pp. 117-42 in D. Welch (ed.) Nazi Propaganda: The Power and the Limitations, London: Croom Helm.
72.
Swiebocka, T. (ed.) (1995) Auschwitz: A History in Photographs.Warsaw: Anschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Ksiazka i Wiedza.
73.
Taylor, R. (1979) Film Propaganda in Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany.London: Croom Helm.
74.
Van Zoonen, L. (1994) Feminist Media Studies.London: Sage.
75.
Weitzman, L.J. (1998) `Living on the Aryan Side in Poland: Gender, Passing and the Nature of Resistance', pp. 187-8 in D. Ofer and L.J. Weitzman (eds) Women in the Holocaust.New Haven, CT and London.Yale University Press.
76.
Welch, X. (1983) Propaganda in the German Cinema 1933-1945.Oxford: Clarendon Press.
77.
Wollstonecraft, M. (1985) Vindication of the Rights of Woman.Harmondsworth: Penguin; first published 1792.
78.
Wyschogrod, E. (1998) An Ethics of Remembering: History, Heterology and the Nameless Others.Chicago, IL and London: University of Chicago Press.
79.
Young, J.B. (1988) Writing and Rewriting the Holocaust: Narrative and the Consequences of Interpretation.Bloomington and Indianopolis: Indiana University Press.
80.
Yuval-Davies, N. (1993) `Gender and Nations', Ethnic and Racial Studies16: 621-32.