Intellectually gifted students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) face unique academic and social challenges, yet little research has been conducted with this population. The purpose of this study was to examine the self-esteem and self-concept of intellectually gifted children with and without a coexisting diagnosis of ADHD. Data were gathered from 112 children, aged 6 to 18, identified as having high cognitive ability (IQ of 120, 91st percentile, or above); 54 participants also met diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Despite having similar IQs, gifted students with ADHD had lower scores on measures of self-esteem, behavioral self-concept, and overall happiness than gifted students without a comorbid diagnosis. Among all participants, children had higher reported overall happiness than adolescents. Professionals working with gifted students with ADHD should be aware of the potential for coexisting self-esteem difficulties and, if warranted, address these issues in educational and clinical environments.
AlexopoulosD. S.FoudoulakiE. (2002). Construct validity of the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Sale. Psychological Reports, 91, 827-838. doi:10.2466/PR0.91.7.827-83810.2466/PR0.91.7.827-838
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
AntshelK.FaraoneS. V.MaglioneK.DoyleA.FriedR.SeidmanL.BiedermanJ. (2008). Temporal stability of ADHD in the high-IQ population: Results from the MGH longitudinal family studies of ADHD. Journal of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 817-825.
4.
AntshelK.FaraoneS. V.StalloneK.NaveA.KaufmannF. A.DoyleA.. . . BiedermanJ. (2007). Is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder a valid diagnosis in the presence of high IQ? Results from the MGH longitudinal family studies of ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 687-694.
5.
BarkleyR. A. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
6.
BarkleyR. A.FischerM.SmallishL.FletcherK. (2006). Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: Adaptive functioning in major life activities. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 192-202.
7.
BaumS. M.OlenchakF. R. (2002). The alphabet children: GT, ADHD, and more. Exceptionality, 10, 77-91. doi:10.1207/s15327035ex1002_310.1207/s15327035ex1002_3
8.
BaumS. M.OwenS. V. (2004). To be gifted and learning disabled: Strategies for helping bright students with LD, ADHD, and more. Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press.
9.
BoehmJ. K.LyubomirskyS. (2008). Does happiness promote career success?Journal of Career Assessment, 16, 101-116. doi:10.1177/106907270730814010.1177/1069072707308140
10.
Brassett-HarknettA.ButlerN. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: An overview of the etiology and a review of the literature relating to the correlates and life course outcomes for men and women. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 188-210.
11.
BussingR.ZimaB.PerwienA. R. (2000). Self-esteem in special education children with ADHD: Relationship to disorder characteristics and medication use. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1260-1269. doi:10.1097/00004583-200010000-0001310.1097/00004583-200010000-00013
12.
CanuW. H.CarlsonC. L. (2007). Rejection sensitivity and social outcomes of young adult men with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 261-275. doi:10.1177/108705470628810610.1177/1087054706288106
13.
ChengH.FurnhamA. (2003). Personality, self-esteem, and demographic predictions of happiness and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 921-942. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00078-810.1016/s0191-8869(02)00078-8
14.
CohnM. A.FredricksonB. L.BrownS. L.MikelsJ. A.ConwayA. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion, 9, 361-368. doi:10.1037/a001595210.1037/a0015952
15.
ColangeloN.AssoulineS. G. (1995). Self-concept of gifted students: Patterns by self-concept domain, grade level, and gender. In KatzoM. S.MonksF. J. (Eds.), Nurturing talent: Individual needs and social ability (pp. 66-74). Assen, NL: Van Gorcum.
16.
ColangeloN.AssoulineS. G.MarronM. A.CastellanoJ. A.ClinkenbeardP. R.RogersK.. . . SmithD. (2010). Guidelines for developing an academic acceleration policy. Journal of Advanced Academics, 21, 180-203.
17.
DemarayM. K.ElliottS. N. (2001). Perceived social support by children with characteristics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Quarterly, 16, 68-90.
18.
DemarayM. K.MaleckiC. K.DavidsonL. M.HodgsonK. K.RebusP. J. (2005). The relationship between social support and student adjustment: A longitudinal analysis. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 691-706.
19.
DeWolfeN. A.ByrneJ. M.BawdenH. N. (2000). ADHD in preschool children: Parent-rated psychosocial correlates. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 42, 825-830.
20.
Dooling-LitfinJ. K.RosenL. A. (1997). Self-esteem in college students with a childhood history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 11, 69-82. doi:10.1300/J035v11n04_0610.1300/J035v11n04_06
21.
DuPaulG.PowerT. J. (2008). Improving school outcomes for students with ADHD: Using the right strategies in the context of the right relationships. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 519-521. doi:10.1177/108705470831424110.1177/1087054708314241
22.
EdbomT.GranlundM.LichtensteinP.LarsonJ. (2008). ADHD symptoms related to profiles of self-esteem in a longitudinal study of twins: A person-oriented approach. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 21, 228-237.
23.
FabianoG. A.PelhamW. E.WaschbushD. A.GnagyE. M.LaheyB. B.ChronisA. M.. . . Burrows-MacLeanL. (2006). A practical measure of impairment: Psychometric properties of the impairment rating scale in samples of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and two school-based samples. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35, 369-385. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3503_310.1207/s15374424jccp3503_3
24.
FieldT.HardingJ.YandoR.GonzalezK.LaskoD.BendellD.MarksC. (1998). Feelings and attitudes of gifted students. Adolescence, 33, 331-342.
25.
Foley-NicponM.AllmonA.SieckR.StinsonR. D. (2011). Empirical investigation of twice-exceptionality: Where have we been and where are we going?Gifted Child Quarterly, 55, 3-17. doi:10.1177/001698621038257510.1177/0016986210382575
26.
FurnhamA.ChengH. (2000). Perceived parental behavior, self-esteem, and happiness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 463-470. doi:10.1007/s00127005026510.1007/s001270050265
27.
GrossM. U. M. (2001). Ability grouping, self-esteem, and the gifted: A study of optical illusions and optimal environments. In ColangeloN.AssoulineS. G. (Eds.), Talent development IV: Proceedings from the 1998 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development (pp. 59-88). Scottsdale, AZ: Great Potential Press.
28.
HartnettD. N.NelsonJ.RinnA. N. (2004). Gifted or ADHD? The possibilities of misdiagnosis. Roeper Review, 26, 73-76. doi:10.1080/0278319240955424510.1080/02783192409554245
29.
HozaB.DobbsJ.OwensJ. S.PelhamW. E.PillowD. R. (2002). Do boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder have positive illusory self-concepts?Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 268-278.
30.
HozaB.WaschbuschD. A.PelhamW. E.MolinaB. S. G.MilichR. (2000). Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder and control boys’ responses to social success and failure. Child Development, 71, 432-446.
31.
HuittW. (2009). Self and self-views. Educational psychology interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
32.
LerouxJ. A.Levitt-PerlmanM. (2000). The gifted child with attention deficit disorder: An identification and intervention challenge. Roeper Review, 22, 171-183.
33.
LewisJ. D.KnightH. V. (2000). Self-concept in gifted youth: An investigation employing the Peris-Harris subscales. Gifted Child Quarterly, 44, 45-53. doi:10.1177/00169862000440010510.1177/001698620004400105
34.
ListerK.RobertsJ. (2011). The self-concepts and perceived competencies of gifted and non-gifted students: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Special Education Needs, 11, 130-140. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2010.01166.x10.1111/j.1471-3802.2010.01166.x
35.
LitnerB. (2003). Teens with ADHD: The challenge of high school. Child & Youth Care Forum, 32, 137-158. doi:10.1023/A:102335030848510.1023/A:1023350308485
36.
LyubomirskyS.KingL.DienerE. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?Psychological Bulletin, 13, 803-855. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.80310.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
37.
MahoneE. M.ZabelT. A.LeveyE.VerdaM.KinsmanS. (2002). Parent and self-report ratings of executive function in adolescents with myelomeningocele and hydrocephalus. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 258-270.
38.
MaleckiC. K.ElliottS. N. (1999). Adolescents’ ratings of perceived social support and its importance: Validation of the student social support scale. Psychology in the Schools, 36, 473-483.
39.
MerrellK. W.WolfeT. M. (1998). The relationship of teacher-rated social skills deficits and ADHD characteristics among kindergarten-age children. Psychology in the Schools, 35, 101-109.
40.
MoonS. M.ZentallS. S.GrskovicJ. A.HallA.StormontM. (2001). Emotional and social characteristics of boys with ADHD and giftedness: A comparative case study. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 24, 207-247.
41.
NailJ. M.EvansJ. G. (1997). The emotional adjustment of gifted adolescents: A view of global functioning. Roeper Review, 20, 18-21.
42.
PiersE. V.HarrisD. B.HerzbergD. S. (2002). Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
43.
PiseccoS.WristersK.SwankP.SilvaP. A.BakerD. B. (2001). The effect of academic self-concept on ADHD and antisocial behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 450-461. doi:10.1177/0022219410340050610.1177/00222194103400506
44.
RalabateP. (2006). The twice-exceptional dilemma. Washington, DC: National Education Association.
45.
RealmutoG. M.WintersK. C.AugustG. J.LeeS.FahnhorstT.BotzetA. (2009). Drug use and psychosocial functioning of a community-derived sample of adolescents with childhood ADHD. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 18, 172-192.
46.
RenG.QianM.WangY.GuB. (2002). Family environment and the development of self-esteem, self-concept, and external-internal control in children with ADHD. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 16, 268-272.
47.
ReynoldsC. R.KamphausR. W. (2004). Behavioral assessment system for children (2nd ed.). Bloomington, MN: Pearson.
48.
RichmanG.HopeT.MihalasS. T. (2010). Assessment and treatment of self-esteem in adolescents with ADHD. In GuindonM. (Ed.), Self-esteem across the life span: Issues and interventions (pp. 111-123). New York, NY: Routledge.
49.
RoznowskiM.HongS.ReithJ. (2000). A further look at youth intellectual giftedness and its correlates: Values, interests, performance, and behavior. Intelligence, 28, 87-113.
50.
RucklidgeJ. J.BrownD. L.CrawfordS.KaplanB. J. (2007). Attributional styles and psychosocial functioning of adults with ADHD: Practice issues and gender differences. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 288-298.
51.
SattlerJ. M. (2008). Assessment of children: Cognitive foundations (5th ed.). La Mesa, CA: Author.
52.
Shaw-ZirtB.Popali-LehaneL.ChaplinW.BergmanA. (2005). Adjustment, social skills, and self-esteem in college students with symptoms of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 8, 109-120.
53.
StormontM. (2001). Social outcomes of children with ADHD: Contributing factors and implications for practice. Psychology in the Schools, 38, 521-531.
54.
TabassamW.GraingerJ. (2002). Self-concept, attributional style and self-efficacy beliefs of students with learning disabilities with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 141-151.
55.
ThompsonM. J. J.BrookeX. M.WestC. A.JohnsonH. R.BumbyE. J.BrodrickP.. . . ScottN. (2004). Profiles, co-morbidity and their relationship to treatment of 191 children with ADHD and their families. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 234-242. doi:10.1007/s00787-004-0380-410.1007/s00787-004-0380-4
WatkinsM. W.GreenawaltC. G.MarcellC. M. (2002). Factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition among gifted students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62, 164-172.
58.
WechslerD. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
59.
WechslerD. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
60.
ZentallS. S.MoonS. M.HallA. M.GrskovicJ. A. (2001). Learning and motivational characteristics of boys with ADHD and/or giftedness. Exceptional Children, 67, 499-519.
