The education profession in Hong Kong has been experiencing waves of educational reforms since the early 1990s. A system of school-based management has been imported from Western countries without undergoing thorough discussion about the roles that teachers might play in facilitating it. The purpose of this article is to suggest a strategic mix for school leaders toward effective implementation of teacher empowerment. This mix is divided into three levels: the teacher, administrator, and school levels. At each level the foundations of empowerment have been identified and actions for empowerment discussed. The suggested strategies attempt to balance the human and operational factors in the reform initiative. This article also presents certain contextual considerations when implementing the Western-born concept in the local society where Confucian traditions prevail.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AppelbaumS. H., HebertD., and LerouxS. (1999). Empowerment: Power, culture and leadership–A strategy or fad for the millennium?Journal of Workplace Learning: Employee Counselling Today, 11(7), 233—254.
2.
BeareH., CaldwellB., and MillikanR. (1997). Dimensions of leadership. In CrawfordM., KyddL., and RichesC. (Eds.), Leadership and teams in educational management (pp. 24—39). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
3.
BlanchardK., CarlosJ. P., and RandolphA. (2001). The three keys to empowerment. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
4.
BolinF. S. (1989). Empowering leadership. Teachers College Record, 91(1), 81—96.
5.
ChengK. -M. (1995). The neglected dimension: Cultural comparison in educational administration. In WongK.C., and ChengK.M. (Eds.), Educational leadership and change (pp. 87—102). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
6.
ChengK. -M. (2002). The quest for quality education: The quality assurance movement in Hong Kong. In MokJ.K.H., and ChanD.K.K. (Eds.), Globalization and education (pp. 41—65). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
7.
CreemersB. (1997). Towards a theory of educational effectiveness. In HarrisA., BennettN., and PreedyM. (Eds.), Organizational effectiveness and improvement in education (pp. 109—123). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
8.
DavidJ. L. (1993). Synthesis of research on school-based management. In and and BrandtR.S. (Ed.), Restructuring schools (pp. 36—42). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
9.
DavisJ., and WilsonS. M. (2000). Principals’ efforts to empower teachers: Effects on teacher motivation and job satisfaction and stress. Clearing House, 73(6), 349—353.
10.
DavisonR., and MartinsonsM. G. (2002). Empowerment or enslavement?A case of process-based organizational change in Hong Kong. Information Technology & People, 15(1), 42—59.
11.
DimmockC. (2000). Hong Kong's school reform: Importing Western policy into an Asian culture. In DimmockC., and WalkerA. (Eds.), Future school administration: Western and Asian perspectives (pp. 191—223). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.
12.
DimmockC., and WalkerA. (1998). Transforming Hong Kong's schools: Trends and emerging issues. Journal of Educational Administration, 36(5), 476—491.
13.
DonderoG. M. (1997). Organizational climate and teacher autonomy: Implications for educational reform. International Journal of Educational Management, 11(5), 218—221.
14.
DowsonC., BodycottP., WalkerA., and ConiamD. (2000). Education reform in Hong Kong: Issues of consistency, connectedness and culture. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(24), retrieved August 1, 2000, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n24.html.
15.
EnglandJ. (1989). Industrial relations and law in Hong Kong (2nd ed.). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
16.
EvansR. (1996). The human side of school change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17.
FarberB., and AscherC. (1991). Urban school restructuring and teacher burnout. ERIC Digest, No. 75, retrieved November 19, 2001, from http://ericae.net/edo/ED340812.htm.
18.
FieldsD., ChanA., and AkhtarS. (2000). Organizational context and human resource management strategy: A structural equation analysis of Hong Kong firms. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(2), 264—277.
19.
HargreavesD. H. (1997). School culture, school effectiveness and school improvement. In HarrisA., BennettN., and PreedyM. (Eds.), Organizational effectiveness and improvement in education (pp. 239—250). Buckingham: Open University Press.
20.
HarleyW. B. (1995). Eight critical principles of empowerment. Empowerment in Organizations, 3(1), 5—12.
21.
HayesR. L., and LunsfordB. (1994). Elements of empowerment: Enhancing efforts for school renewal. People & Education, 2(1), 83—99.
MaeroffG. (1988). The empowerment of teachers. New York: Teachers College Press.
33.
McClureM. W., WooR. C., LuggC., ReeC., and RossM. (1998, December). Teachers as school board members: Democratic communities, professional associations, and the generational trust. Paper presented to The Research Group, National Educational Association, Washington, DC, retrieved July 11, 2001, from http://www.pitt.edu/∼mmcclure/NEA/nea.html
34.
MillerJ. L. (1990). Creating spaces and finding voices: Teacher collaborating for empowerment. Albany: State University of New York Press.
35.
MorleyL., and RassoolN. (2000). School effectiveness: New managerialism, quality and the Japanization of education. Journal of Educational Policy, 15(2), 169—183.
36.
MurrellK. L., and MeredithM. (2000). Empowering employees. New York: McGraw-Hill.
37.
PangN. S. K. (2002). Towards “school management reform”: Organizational values of government schools in Hong Kong. In MokJ.K.H., and ChanD.K.K. (Eds.), Globalization and education (pp. 171—193). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
38.
PotterfieldT. A. (1999). The business of employee empowerment. Westport, CT: Quorum.
39.
PowellL. (2002). Shedding a tier: Flattening organizational structures and employee empowerment. International Journal of Educational Management, 16(1), 54—59.
40.
RiceE. M., and SchneiderG. T. (1994). A decade of teacher empowerment: An empirical analysis of teacher involvement in decision making, 1980–1991. Journal of Educational Administration, 32(1), 43—58.
41.
RobbinsS. P. (1994). Management (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
42.
ScarnatiJ. T., and ScarnatiB. J. (2002). Empowerment: The key to quality. TQM, 14(2), 110—119.
43.
StollL. (1991). School self-evaluation: Another boring exercise or an opportunity for growth? In RiddellS., and BrownS. (Eds.), School effectiveness research: Its messages for school improvement (pp. 47—56). Edinburgh, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
44.
StollL., and FinkD. (1995). Changing our schools. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
WallS. J., and WallS. R. (1995). The new strategists: Creating leaders at all levels. New York: Free Press.
47.
WeissC. (1993). Shared decision making about what? A comparison of schools with and without teacher participation. Teachers College Record, 95(1), 69—92.
48.
WilkinsonA. (1998). Empowerment: Theory and practice. Personnel Review, 27(1), 40—56.
49.
WimalasiriJ. S., and KouzminA. (2000). A comparative study of employee involvement initiatives in Hong Kong and the USA. International Journal of Manpower, 21(8), 614—634.
50.
WohlstetterP., and MohrmanS. A. (1993). School-based management: Strategies for success (Finance Brief no. FB-02-1/93). New Brunswick, NJ: Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
51.
WohlstetterP., and MohrmanS. A. (1994). School-based management: Promise and process (Finance Brief no. FB-05-12/94). New Brunswick, NJ: Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
52.
WongK. -C. (2002). Culture and quality education: Ethical leadership and school organization. In MokJ.K.H., and ChanD.K.K. (Eds.), Globalization and education (pp. 123—139). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
53.
ZeichnerK. M. (1991). Contradictions and tensions in the professionalization of teaching and the democratization of schools. Teachers College Record, 92(3), 363—379.
