This paper theorizes how reciprocal obligations that are inherent in social capital resource exchanges work for groups defined by gender, class and race. When one receives favors, there is generally an expectation that the favor will be returned either to the group as a whole or to the individual who extended the favor. While these ideas are discussed in the social capital literature, insufficient attention has been given to how these processes may differ for groups defined by gender, class and race and how these differences affect the groups' socioeconomic circumstances. This paper provides theoretical clarity to these issues.
AdlerP. S.KwonS.2002. “Social Capital: Prospects for a New Concept.”Academy of Management Review27:17–40.
2.
BianY.AngS.1997. “Guanxi Networks and Job Mobility in China and Singapore.”Social Forces75:981–1006.
3.
BlauPeter M.1982. “Structural Sociology and Network Analysis: An Overview.” Pp. 273–280 in MarsdenP.V.LinN. (Eds.), Social Structure and Network Analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
4.
BlumbergM.PringleC. D.1982. “The Missing Opportunity in Organizational Research: Some Implications for a Theory of Work Performance.”Academy of Management Review7:560–569.
5.
BourdieuP.1986. The forms of capital. In RichardsonJ. G. (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education: 241–258.
6.
BridgesW. P.VillemezW. J.1986. Informal hiring and income in the labor market. American Sociological Review51:574–582.
7.
BurtR. S.. 1992. Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8.
BurtR. S.1998. “The Gender of Social Capital.”Relationality and Society10:5–36.
9.
CampbellK. E.MarsdenP.V.HurlbertJ. S.1988. “Social Resources and Socio-Economic Status.”Social Networks8:97–116.
10.
CastillaE.2008. “Gender, Race, and Meritocracy in Organizational Careers.”American Journal of Sociology113 (6): 1479–1526.
11.
CohenL. E.BrocschakJ. P.HavemanH. A.1998. “And Then There Were More? The Effect of Organizational Sex Composition on the Hiring and Promotion of Managers.”American Sociological Review63:711–727.
12.
ColemanJ. S.1988. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital.”American Journal of Sociology94:95–120.
13.
ConleyD.1999. Being Black, Living in the Red: Race, Wealth, and Social Policy in America. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
14.
DiTomasoN.PostC.SmithR. D.FarrisG. F.CorderoR.2007. “Effects of Structural Position on Allocation and Evaluation Decisions for Scientists and Engineers in Industrial RandD.”Administrative Science Quarterly52:175–207.
15.
EllemersN.1993. “The Influence of Socio-Structural Variables on Identity Management Strategies.”European Review of Social Psychology4.
16.
GranovetterM.1973. “The Strength of Weak Ties.”American Journal of Sociology78:1360–1380.
17.
GranovetterM.1995. Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
18.
HansonS.PrattG.. 1991. “Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women.”Annals of the Association of American Geographers81:229–253.
19.
IbarraH.1992. “Homophily and Differential Returns: Sex Differences in Network Structures and Access in an Advertising Firm.”Administrative Science Quarterly37:422–438.
20.
IbarraH.1993. “Personal Networks of Women and Minorities in Management: A Conceptual Framework.”Academy of Management Review18:56–87.
21.
IbarraH.1995. “Race, Opportunity, and Diversity of Social Circles in Managerial Networks.”Academy of Management Journal18:673–703.
22.
KanterR. M.1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.
23.
KrackhardtD.1990. “Assessing the Political Landscape: Structure, Cognition, and Power in Organizations.”Administrative Science Quarterly35:342–369.
24.
LamontM.2000. The Dignity of Working Men. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
25.
LareauA.2000. Home Advantage. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
26.
Lareau, 2002. “Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black and White Families.”American Sociological Review67:747–776.
27.
LinN.EnselW. M.VaughnJ. C.1981. “Social Resources and Strength of Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment”. American Sociological Review46:393–405.
28.
LinN.2001. Social Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
29.
MasseyD. S.DentonN. A.1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
30.
MunchA.McPhersonJ. M.Smith-LovinL.1997. “Gender, Children, and Social Contact: The Effects of Childrearing on Men and Women.”American Sociological Review55:509–520.
31.
NewmanK.S.1999. No Shame in My Game: The Working Poor in the Inner City. NY: Knopf and Russell Sage Foundation.
32.
PetersenT.SaportaI.SeidelM. L.2000. “Offering a Job: Meritocracy and Social Networks.”American Journal of Sociology106:763–816.
PortesA.SensenbrennerJ.1993. “Embeddedness and Immigration: Notes on the Social Determinants of Economic Action.”American Journal of Sociology98:1320–1350.
35.
PortesA.1998. “Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology”. In LesserE. (Ed.), Knowledge and Social Capital. Boston: Butterworth-Heineman.
36.
PutnamR.2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster.
37.
RosetteA. S.LeondardelliG. J.PhillipsK. W.2008. “The White Standard: Racial Bias in Leader Categorization.”Journal of Applied Psychology93:758–777.
38.
SeibertS. E.KraimerM. L.LidenR. C.2001. “A Social Capital Theory of Career Success.”Academy of Management Journal44:219–235.
39.
SmithS. S.2005. “‘Don't Put My Name On It.’ Social Capital Activation and Job-finding Assistance Among the Black Urban Poor.”American Journal of Sociology111 (2): 1–57.
40.
SorensenA. B.1977. “The Structure of Inequality and the Process of Attainment.”American Sociological Review42:965–978.
41.
StackC. B.. 1974. All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York: Harper Row.
42.
TajfelH.TurnerJ. C.1979. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In AustinW. G.WorchelS. (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
43.
TillyC.. 1999. Durable Inequality. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
44.
UmphressE. E.SimmonsA. L.BoswellW. R.del CarmenTriana M. In press. “Managing Discrimination in Selection: The Influence of Directives from an Authority and Social Dominance Orientation.”Journal of Applied Psychology93 (5): 982–993.
45.
WaldingerR.1996. Still the Promised City? African-Americans and New Immigrants in Postindustrial New York. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
46.
WatersM. C.1990. Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America. Berkeley, CA. University of California Press.
47.
WellmanB.FrankK. A.2001. “Network Capital in a Multilevel World: Getting Support from Personal Communities.” In LinN.CookK.BurtR. S. (Eds.), Social Capital: Theory and Research: 31–56. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
48.
WillisP.1977. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Westmead, England: Saxon House.
49.
WilsonW. J.1996. When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New York: Vintage Books.
50.
ZhouM.BankstonC. L.III1998. Growing up American: How Vietnamese Children to Adapt to Life in the United States. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
