The current research literature on strategy formation processes (formulation and implementation) in health care organizations is reviewed. A new, integrated model of the linkages between strategy formation process and content is developed based on the general strategic management literature. This framework is applied systematically to the health care organizational literature. Issues of control, collectivity, change, choice and thinking are examined in detail as they apply to strategy formation processes in health care organizations.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alexander, J.A., & Amburgey, T.L.1987. The dynamics of change in the American hospital industry: Transformation or selection?Medical Care Review, 44(2):279-321.
2.
Alexander, J.A., & Morlock, L.L.1985. CEO-board relationships under hospital corporate restructuring. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(2):435-448.
3.
Alexander, J.A., & Schroer, K.A.1985. Governance in decision-making multihospital systems: An assessment of responsibility. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 30:9-20.
4.
Andrews, K.R.1971. The concept of corporate strategy. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.
5.
Arnold, R.J., & DeBrock, L.M.1986. Competition and market failure in the hospital industry: A review of the evidence. Medical Care Review, 43:253-292.
6.
Ashby, W.R.1956. An introduction to cybernetics. New York: Wiley.
7.
Astley, W.G., & Fombrum, C.J.1983. Collective strategy: Social ecology of organizational environments. Academy of Management Review, 8(4):567-587.
8.
Autrey, P., & Thomas, D.1986. Competitive strategy in the hospital industry. Health Care Management Review, 11:7-14.
9.
Barney, J.B., & Hoskisson, R.E.1990. Strategic groups: Untested assertions and research proposals. Managerial and Decision Economics, 11: 187-198.
10.
Blair, J.D., & Fottler, M.D.1990. Challenges in health care management: Strategic perspectives on managing key stakeholders. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
11.
Blair, J.D., & Hunt, J.G.1986. Getting inside the head of the management researcher one more time: Contextfree and context-specific orientations in research. Yearly Review of Management: A Special Issue of the Journal of Management, 12(2): 147-166.
12.
Blair, J.D., Savage, G.T., & Whitehead, C.J.1989. A strategic approach for negotiating with hospital stakeholders. Health Care Management Review, 14(1): 13-23.
13.
Blair, J.D., Slaton, C.R., & Savage, G.T.1990. Hospital-physician joint ventures: A strategic approach for both dimensions of success, Hospital & Health Services Administration. 35(1): 3-26.
14.
Blair, J.D., & Whitehead, C.J.1988. Too many on the seesaw: Stakeholder diagnosis and management for hospitals. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(2): 153-166.
15.
Boal, K.B., & Bryson, J.M.1987. Representation, testing and policy implications of planning processes. Strategic Management Journal, 8(3):211-231.
16.
Boal, K.B., & Bryson, J.M.1988. Charismatic leadership: A phenomenological and structural approach. In J.G. Hunt, B.R. Baliga, H.P. Dachler, & C.A. Schriesheim (Eds.), Emerging Leadership Wstas:11-28. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
17.
Bonoma, T.V.1984. Making your marketing work. Harvard Business Review, 60(2):69-76.
18.
Borys, B., & Jemison, D.B.1989. Hybrid arrangements as strategic alliances: Theoretical issues in organizational contributions. Academy ofManagement Review, 14(2):234-249.
19.
Boscarino, J.A.1989. Hospital wellness centers: Strategic implementation, marketing, and management. Health Care Management Review, 14(2): 25-29.
20.
Boschken, H.L.1990. Strategy and structure: Reconceptualizing the relationship. Journal of Management, 16(1):135-150.
21.
Bracker, J.S., Keats, B.W., & Pearson, J.N.1988. Planning and financial performance among small firms in a growth industry. Strategic Management Journal, 9(6):591-603.
22.
Brady, N.F.1987. Rules for making exceptions to rules. Academy of Management Review, 3:436-444.
23.
Brown, M., & McCool, B.P.1987. High-performing managers: Leadership attributes for the 1990's. Health Care Management Review, 12(2): 69-75.
24.
Broyles, R.W., & Reilly, B.J.1988. Physicians, patients, and administrators: A realignment of relationships. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(1):5-14.
25.
Buller, L.R., & Timpson, L.1986. The strategic management of hospitals: Toward an integrative approach. Health Care Management Review, 11 (2):7-13.
26.
Cameron, K.1986. Effectiveness as paradox: Consensus and conflict in conceptualizations of organizational effectiveness. Management Science, 32:539-553.
27.
Capon, N., Farley, J.V., & Hoenig, S.1990. Determinants of financial performance: A meta-analysis. Management Science, 36(10):1143-1159.
28.
Carter, N.M.1990. Small Firm Adaptation: Responses of physician's organizations to regulatory and competitive uncertainty. Academy of Management Journal, 33(2):307-333.
29.
Chi, M.T.A., Glasser, R., & Rees, E.1982. Expertise in problem solving. In R.J. Sternberg (Eds.) Advances in the psychology of human intelligence: 7-75. Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.
30.
Chi, M.T.A., Glasser, R., & Farr, M.J.1988. The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
31.
Child, J.1972. Organizational structure, environment, and performance-the role of strategic choice. Sociology,6:1-22.
32.
Cleverly, W.O.1987. Strategic financial planning: A balance sheet perspective. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 32:1-20.
33.
Coddington, D., & Moore, K.1987. Market driven strategies in health care. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Conrad, D.A., Mick, S.S., Madden, C.W., & Hoare, G.1988. Vertical structures and control in health care markets: A conceptual framework and empirical review. Medical Care Review, 45(2):49-100.
36.
Cool, K.O., & Schendel, D.E.1987. Strategic group formation and performance: U.S. pharmaceutical industry, (1963-1982). Management Science, 33:1102-1124.
37.
Cool, K.O., & Schendel, D.E.1988. Performance differences among strategic group members. Strategic Management Journal, 9(3):207-223.
38.
Costello, M.M.1986. Caution: Business opportunity ahead. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 31:19-31.
39.
Daft, R.L., & Buenger, V.1990. Hitching a ride on a fast train to nowhere: The past and future of strategic management research. In J.W. Frederickson (Ed.), Perspectives on strategic management:81-103. New York: Harper Business.
40.
Daft, R.L., & Lengel, R.H.1986. Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design. Management Science, 32(5):554-571.
41.
Daft, R.L., Soununen, J., & Parks, D.1988. Chief executive scanning, environmental characteristics, and company performance: An empirical study. Strategic Management Journal, 9(2): 123-139.
42.
Day, D.L., Farley, J.V., & Wind, J.1990. New perspectives on strategy research: A view from the management sciences. Management Science, 36(10): Introduction.
43.
Delbecq, A.L., & Gill, S.L.1988. Developing strategic direction for governing boards. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(l):25-35.
44.
Delbecq, A.L., & Van de Ven, A.H.1971. A group process model for problem identification and program planning. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 7:466-492.
45.
Desai, H.B., & Margenthaler, C.R.1987. A framework for developing hospital strategies. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 32:235-248.
46.
DiMaggio, P.J., & Powell, W.W.1983. The iron law cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48:147-160.
47.
Dutton, J.E., & Otensmeyer, E.1987. Strategic issue management systems: Forms, functions, and contexts. Academy of Management Journal, 12(l):355-365.
48.
Dwore, R.B., & Murray, B.P.1987. Hospital administrators in a market environment: The case of Utah. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 32:493-508.
49.
Earley, P.C., Northcraft, G.B., Lee, C., & Lituchy, T.R.1990. Impact of process and outcome feedback on the relationship of goal setting to task performance. Academy of Management Journal, 33(l):87-105.
50.
Eceles, R.1981. The quasi-firm in the construction industry. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 26:335-357.
51.
Eisenhardt, K.M.1989. Making fast strategic decisions in high-velocity environments. Academy of Management Journal, 32(3):543-576.
52.
Eisenhardt, K.M., & Schoonhoven, C.B.1990. Organizational growth: Linking founding team, strategy, environment, and growth among U.S. semiconductor ventures, 1978-1988. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(3):504-529.
53.
Erickson, G.M., & Finkler, S.A.1985. Determinants of market share for a hospital's services. Medical Care, 23(8): 1003-1018.
54.
Fahey, L., & Christensen, K.H.1986. Evaluating the Research on Strategy Content. Yearly Review of Management: A Special Issue of the Journal of Management. 12(2):167-183.
55.
Feldman, J.1986. On the difficulty of learning from experience. In H.P. Sims, Jr., D.A. Gioia & Associates (Eds.), The thinking organization: 263-292. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
56.
Files, L.A.1988. Strategy formulation in hospitals. Health Care Management Review, 13(1):9-16.
57.
Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D.C.1990. Top-management-team tenure and organizational outcomes: The moderating role of managerial discretion. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(3):484-503.
58.
Fottler, M.D.1987. Health care organization performance: Present and future research. Yearly Review of Management: A Special Issue of the Journal of Management, 13(2):367-392.
59.
Fottler, M.D., Blair, J.D., Whitehead, C.J., Laus, M.D., & Savage, G.T.1989. Assessing key stakeholders: Who matters to hospitals and why?Hospital & Health Services Administration, 34(4):525-546.
60.
Fouler, M.D., Phillips, R.L., Blair, J.D., & Duran, C.A.1990. Achieving Competitive Advantage through Strategic Human Resource Management. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 35(3):341-363.
61.
Freeman, J.1978. The unit of analysis in organizational research. In M. Meyer and Associates (Eds.), Environments and organizations:335-351. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
62.
Freeman, R.E.1984. Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman Publishing.
63.
Fredrickson, J.W. (Ed.). 1990. Perspectives on strategic management. New York: Harper Business.
64.
Fredrickson, J.W., & Iaquinto, A.L.1989. Inertia and creeping rationality in strategic decision processes.Academy of Management Journal, 32(3):516-542.
65.
Fredrickson, J.W., & Mitchell, T.R.1984. Strategic decision processes: Comprehensive and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 27(2):399-423.
Garnick, D.W., Luft, H.S., Robinson, J.C., & Tetreault, J.1987. Appropriate measures of hospital market areas. Health Services Research, 22:69-89.
68.
Gersick, C.J.G.1991. Revolutionary change theories: A multilevel exploration of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm. Academy of Management Review, 16(1):10-36.
69.
Gill, S.L., & Meighan, S.S.1988. Five roadblocks to effective partnerships in a competitive health care environment. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33:505-520.
70.
Gillock, R.E., Smith, H.L., & Piland, N.F.1986. For-profit and nonprofit mergers: Concerns and outcomes. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 31:74-84.
71.
Ginn, G.1990. Strategic change in hospitals: An examination of the response of the acute care hospital to the turbulent environment of the 1980s. Health Services Research, 25(4):565-591.
72.
Ginsberg, A.1990. Connecting diversification to performance: A sociocognitive approach. Academy of Management Review, 15(3):514-535.
73.
Ginsberg, A., & Buckholtz, A., 1990. Converting to for-profit status: Corporate responsiveness to radical change. Academy of Management Journal, 33(3):445-447.
74.
Ginsberg, A., & Venkatraman, N.1985. Contingency perspectives on organizational strategy: A critical review of the empirical research. Academy of Management Review, 10(3):421-434.
75.
Gioia, D.1986. Symbols, scripts, and sense making: Creating meaning in the organization experience. In H.P. Sims, Jr., D.A. Gioia & Associates (Eds.), The thinking organization:49-74. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
76.
Glasser, R.1984. Education and thinking. American Psychologist, 39:93-104.
77.
Gould, S.J., & Eldredge, N.1977. Punctuated equilibria: the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered. Paleobiology, 3:115-151.
78.
Gourley, D.R., & Moore, M.E.1988. Marketing and planning in multihospital systems. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33:331-344.
79.
Govindarajan, V.1989. Implementing competitive strategies at the business unit level: Implications of matching managers to strategies. Strategic Management Journal, 10(3):251-269.
80.
Grant, R.M.1988. On 'dominant logic,' relatedness and the link between diversity and performance. Strategic Management Journal, 9(6):639-642.
81.
Greaf, W.D.1988. Public hospital strategic planning: Does it differ from voluntary, not-for-profit hospital strategic planning?Health Care Management Review, 13(3):7-14.
82.
Greifinger, R.B., & Bluestone, M.S.1986. Building physician alliances for cost containment. Health Care Management Review, 11 (4):63-72.
83.
Griffith, J.R.1988. Voluntary hospitals: Are trustees the solution?Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(3):295-309.
84.
Grinyer, P., & McKiernan, P.1990. Generating major change in stagnating companies. Strategic Management Journal, 11(2):131-146.
Gupta, A.K., & Govindarajan, V.1984. Business unit strategy, managerial characteristics, and business unit effectiveness at strategic implementation. Academy of Management Journal, 27(1):25-41.
87.
Hambrick, D.C.1989. Guest editors introduction: Putting top managers back in the strategy picture. Strategic Management Journal, 10:(1)5-15.
88.
Hambrick, D.C., & Finkelstein, S.1987. Managerial discretion: A bridge between polar views of organizational outcomes. In L.L. Cummings & B.M. Staw (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, 9:369-406. Greenwich, CN: JAI Press.
89.
Hambrick, D.C., & Mason, P.A.1984. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9:193-206.
90.
Hannan, M.T., & Freeman, J.H.1977. The population ecology of organizations. American Journal of Sociology, 82:929-964.
91.
Hansen, G.S. & Wernerfelt, B.1989. Determinants of firm performance: The relative importance of economic and organizational factors. Strategic Management Journal, 10(5):399-411.
92.
Hirsch, P.M., Friedman, R., & Koza, M.P.1990. Collaboration or paradigm shift?: Caveat emptor & the risk of romance with economic models for strategy and policy research. Organization Science, 1:87-98.
Hogarth, R.M.1981. Beyond discrete biases: Functional and dysfunctional aspects of judgmental heuristics. Psychological Bulletin, 90:197-217.
95.
Huff, A.S., & Reger, R.K., (1987) A review of Strategic Process Research. Yearly Review of Management: A Special Issue of the Journal of Management, 13(2):211-236.
96.
Hunter, S.S.1987. Marketing and strategic management: Integrating skills for a better hospital. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 32:205-217.
97.
Hurst, D.K., Rush, J.C., & White, R.E.1989. top management teams and organizational renewal. Strategic Management Journal, 10(2):87-105.
98.
Jacobs, T.O., & Jacques, E.1987. Leadership in complex systems. In J.A. Zeide (Ed.), Human productivity enhancement: Organizations and personnel, 2:7-65. New York: Praeger.
99.
Jarillo, J.C.1988. On strategic networks. Strategic Management Journal, 9(1):31-41.
100.
Jones, S.B., Duval, M.K., & Lesparre, M.1987. Competition or conscience? Mixed-mission dilemmas of the voluntary hospital. Inquiry, 24:110-118.
101.
Kerr, J.L., & Jackofsky, E.F.1989. Aligning managers with strategies: Management development versus selection. Strategic Management Journal, 10(2): 157-170.
102.
Koska, M.1990. CEOs make the most of trustees' business acumen. Hospitals, June 5:28-33.
103.
Kovner, A.R., & Chin, M.J.1985. Physician leadership in hospital strategic decision making. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 30:64-79.
104.
Kralewski, J., Gifford, G., & Porter, J.1988. Profit vs. public welfare goals in investor-owned and not-for-profit hospitals. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(3):311-329.
105.
Langley, A.1989. In search of rationality: The purpose behind the use of formal analysis in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34(4):598-631.
106.
Lawless, M.W., & Finch, L.K.1989. Choice and determinism: A test of Hrebiniak and Joyce's framework on strategic environmental fit. Strategic Management Journal, 10(4):351-365.
107.
Levitt, B., & Nass, C.1989. The lid of the garbage can: Institutional constraints on decision making in the technical core of college-text publishers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34(2): 190-207.
108.
Lindblom, C.E.1959. The science of muddling through, Public Administration Review, 19:79-99.
Lord, R.G., & Maher, K.J.1990. Alternative information processing models and their implications for theory, research, & practice. Academy of Management Review, 15(l):9-28.
111.
Lubatkin, M.1988. Value-creating mergers: Fact or folklore?The Academy of Management Executive, 2(4):295-302.
112.
Luft, H.S., Robinson, J.C., Garnick, D.W., Hughes, R., Mcphee, S.J., Hunt, S., & Showstack, J.1986. Hospital behavior in a local market context. Medical Care Review, 43(2):217-251.
113.
Luke, R.D., Begun, J.W., Pointer, D.D.1989. Quasi firms: Strategic interorganizational forms in the health care industry. Academy of Management Review, 14(l):9-19.
114.
Luke, R.D., Ozcan, Y., & Begun, J.W.1990. Birth order in small multihospital systems. Health Services Research, 25(2):306-325.
115.
MacStravic, R.S.1989. Market and market segment portfolio assessment for hospitals. Health Care Management Review, 14(3):25-32.
116.
March, J.G., & Simon, H.A.1958. Organizations. New York: Wiley.
117.
Marcus, A.A.1988. Responses to externally induced innovation: Their effects on organizational performance. Strategic Management Journal, 9(4):387-402.
118.
Mazen, A.M.M., Hemmasi, M., & Lewis, 1987. Assessment of statistical power in contemporary strategy research. Strategic Management Journal, 8(4):403-410.
119.
McDermott, S.1988. The new hospital challenge: Organizing and managing physician organizations. Health Care Management Review, 13(1):57-61.
120.
McPall, S.L., Shortell, S.M., & Manheim, L.M.1988. HCA's acquisition process: The physician's role and perspective. Health Care Management Review, 13(2):22-34.
121.
McGee, J., & Thomas, H.1986. Strategic groups: Theory, research and taxonomy. Strategic Management Journal, 7(2):141-160.
Meyer, A.D., Brooks, G.R., & Goes, J.B.1990. Environmental jolts and industry revolutions: Organizational responses to discontinuous change. Strategic Management Journal, 11:93-110.
124.
Miles, R.E., & Snow, C.C. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure, and process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
125.
Miller, D.1987. The genesis of configuration. Academy of Management Review, 12(4):686-701.
126.
Miller, D., & Friesen, P.H.1980a. Momentum and revolution in organizational adaptation. Academy of Management Journal, 23:591-614.
127.
Miller, D., & Friesen, P.H.1980b. Archetypes of organizational transition. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25:268-299.
128.
Miller, D., Drosage, C., & Toulouse, J.M.1988. Strategic process and content as mediators between organizational context and structure. Academy of Management Journal, 31 (3):544-569.
129.
Mintzberg, H.1978. Patterns in strategy formation. Management Science, 24(9):934-948.
130.
Mintzberg, H.1979. The structuring of organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
131.
Mintzberg, H.1983. Power in and around organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
132.
Mintzberg, H.1988. The strategy concept I: Five Ps for strategy; The strategy concept II: Another look at why organizations need strategies, California Management Review, 30(1): 11-32.
133.
Mintzberg, H.1990. Strategy formation: School of thought. In J.W. Fredrickson (Ed.), Perspectives on strategic management: 105-235. New York: Harper Business.
134.
Mintzberg, H., & McHugh, A.1985. Strategy formulation in an adhocracy. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30(2): 160-197.
135.
Mintzberg, H., Raisinghani, D., & Theoret, A.1976. The structure of "unstructured" decision processes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 21:246-275.
136.
Mintzberg, H., & Waters, J.A.1984. Researching the formation of strategies: The history of Canadian Lady 1939-1976. In R.B. Lamb (Ed.), Competitive strategy management:62-93. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
137.
Mintzberg, H., & Waters, J.A.1985. Of strategies deliberate and emergent. Strategic Management Journal, 6:257-272.
138.
Montgomery, C.A., Werenfelt, B., & Balakrishnan, S.1989. Strategic content and the research process: A critique and commentary. Strategic Management Journal, 12(2):189-197.
139.
Morlock, L.L., & Alexander, J.A.1986. Models of governance in multihospital systems. Medical Care, 24(12):1118-1135.
140.
Morlock, L.L., Alexander, J., & Hunter, H.M.1985. Formal relationships among governing boards, CEOs and medical staffs in independent and system hospitals. Medical Care, 23:1193-1213.
141.
Morrisey, M.A., Alexander, J.A., & Ohsfeldt, R.L.1990. Physician integration strategies and hospital output-A comparison of rural and urban substitutions. Medical Care, 28(7):586-603.
142.
Murray, A.I., 1989. Top management group heterogeneity and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 10:125-141.
143.
Murray, E.A.1978. Strategic Choice as A Negotiated Outcome. Management Science, 24(9):960-972.
144.
Nisbett, R., & Ross, L.1980. Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
145.
Norburn, D., & Birley, S.1988. The top management team and corporate performance. Strategic Management Journal, 9(3):225-237.
146.
Nutt, P.C.1984. Type of organizational decision processes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(3):414-450.
147.
Nutt, P.C.1987. Identifying and appearing how managers install strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 8(l):1-14.
Pant, P.N., & Starbuck, W.H.1990. Innocents in the forest: Forecasting and research methods. Yearly Review of Management: A Special Issue of the Journal of Management, 16(2):433-460.
150.
Rearce, J.A., Robbins, D.K., & Robinson, R.B., Jr.1987. The impact of grand strategy and planning formality on financial performance. Strategic Management Journal, 8(2): 125-134.
151.
Peters, T.H., & Waterman, R.H., Jr.1982. In search of excellence. New York: Harper & Row.
152.
Pettigrew, A.M.1990. Longitudinal field research on change: Theory and practice. Organizational Science, l(3):267-292.
153.
Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G.R.1978. The external control of organizations. New York: Harper & Row.
154.
Pointer, D.D.1990. Offering-level strategy formulation in health service organizations. Health Care Management Review, 15(3):15-23.
155.
Pointer, D.D., Begun, J.W., & Luke, R.D.1988. Managing interorganizational dependencies in the new health care marketplace. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(2):167-177.
156.
Porter, M.E.1980. Competitive strategy. New York: Free Press.
157.
Porter, M.E.1985. Competitive advantage. New York: Free Press.
158.
Prahalad, C.K., & Bettis, B.A.1986. The dominant logic: A new link between diversity and performance. Strategic Management Journal, 7(6):485-501.
159.
Provan, K.G.1988. Organizational and decision unit characteristics and board influence in independent versus multihospital system-affiliated hospitals. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29:239-252.
Rittel, H.W.J., & Webber, M.1973. Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2): 155-169.
164.
Romanelli, E., & Tushman, M.L.1986. Inertia, environment, and strategic choice: A quasi-experimental design for comparative-longitudinal research. Management Science, 32(5):608-621.
165.
Sapienza, A.M.1987. Imagery and strategy. Journal of Management, 13(3):543-555.
166.
Savage, G.T., Blair, J.D., & Sorenson, R.L. (1989), Consider Both Relationship and Substance When Negotiating Strategically. Academy of Management Executive, 3(1):37-48.
Schwenk, C.1989. A meta-analysis on the comparative effectiveness of devil's advocacy and dialectical inquiry. Strategic Management Journal, 10(3):303-306.
169.
Seger, E.1989. A systematic comparative analysis and synthesis of two business-level strategic typologies. Strategic Management Journal, 10(5):487-505.
170.
Shetty, Y.K., & Peery, N.S.1976. Are top executives transferrable across companies?Business Horizons, 19:23-28.
171.
Sbortell, S.M.1989. New directions in hospital governance. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 34:7-23.
172.
Shortell, S.M., Morrisey, M.A., & Conrad, D.A.1985. Economic regulation and hospital behavior: The effects on medical staff organization and hospital-physician relationships. Health Services Research, 20(5):597-628.
173.
Shortell, S.M., Morrison, E.M., & Friedman, B.1990. Strategic choices for America's hospitals: Managing change in turbulent times. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
174.
Shortell, S.M., Morrison, E.M., & Robbins, S.1985. Strategy making in health care organizations: A framework and agenda for research. Medical Care Review, 42(2):219-266.
175.
Simon, J.K., & Cohen, B.A.1989. Reorganization/diversification: Six years later. Health Care Management Review, 14(4):77-84.
Spender, J.C.1983. The business policy problem and industry recipes. Advances in strategic management, 2:211-229.
179.
Starkweather, D.B., & Carman, J.M.1988. The limits of power in hospital markets. Medical Care Review, 45(l):5-48.
180.
Starr, P.1982. The social transformation of American medicine. New York: Basic Books.
181.
Staw, B.M., Sanderlands, L.E., & Dutton, J.E.1981. Threat-rigidity effects in organizational behavior: A multilevel analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26:501-524.
182.
Steiner, G.A.1969. Top management planning. London: Macmillan.
183.
Summer, C.E., Bettis, R.A., Duhaime, I.H., Grant, J.H., Hambrick, D.C., Snow, C.C., & Zeithaml, C.P.1990. Doctoral education in the field of business policy and strategy. Journal of Management, 16(2):361-398.
184.
Sussman, G.E.1985.CEO perspectives on mission, healthcare systems, and the environment. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 30:21-34.
185.
Thomas, J.B., & McDaniel Jr., R.R.1990. Interpreting strategic issues: Effects of strategy and the informationprocessing structure of top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 33(2):286-306.
186.
Topping, S., & Fottler, M.D.1990. Improved stakeholder management: The key to revitalizing the HMO movement?. Medical Care Review,47(3):365-393.
187.
Topping, S. & Hernandez, S.R.1991. Health care strategy research, 1985-1990: A critical review. Medical Care Review, 48(l):47-90.
188.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D.1974. Judgements under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185: 1124-1136.
189.
Umbdenstock, R.J., Hageman, W.M., & Amundson, B.1990. The Five Critical Areas for Effective Governance of Not-for-Profit Hospitals. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 35(4):481-492.
190.
Vpn de Ven, A.H., Delbecq, A.L., & Konig, R., Jr.1976. Determinants of coordination modes within organizations. American Sociological Review, 41(2):322-338.
191.
Venkatraman, N., 1989. The concept of fit in strategy research: Toward vebal and statistical correspondence. Academy of Management Review, 14(3):423-444.
192.
Venkatraman, N., & Prescott, J.E.1990. Environment-strategy coalignment: An empirical test of its performance implications. Strategy Management Journal, 11 (1): 1-23.
193.
Walsh, J.P., & Fahey, L.1986. The role of negotiated belief structures in strategy making. Journal of Management, 12:325-338.
194.
Watson, D., & Strasen, L.1987. The integration of respiratory therapy into nursing: Reorganization for improved productivity. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 32:369-398.
195.
Weick, K.1979. The social psychology of organizing (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
196.
Weick, K.E.1983. Managerial thought in the context of action. In S. Srivastva & Associates (Ed.), The executive mind: 221-242. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
197.
Weinstein, B.M.1986. Situation analysis and strategic development in a public hospital.Hospital & Health Services Administration, 31:62-73.
198.
Westley, F.R.1990. Middle managers and strategy: Microdynamics of inclusion.Strategic Management Journal, 11(5):337-352.
199.
Wheeler, K.E., Porter-O'Grady, T., & Barrell, C.T.1985. Technology: A strategic factor in hospital planning. Health Care Management Review, 10(2):55-63.
200.
White, S.L., & Chirikos, T.N.1988. Measuring hospital competition. Medical Care, 26(3):256-262.
201.
Whitehead, C.J., Blair, J.D., Smith, R.R., Nix, T.W., & Savage, G.T.1989. Stakeholder supportiveness and strategic vulnerability: Implications for the HMO industry's competitive strategy. Health Care Management Review, 14(3):65-76.
202.
Wildavsky, A.1969. Rescuing policy analysis for PPBS. Public Administration Review, 29(2):189-202.
203.
Wodinsky, H.B., Egan, D., & Markel, F.1988. Product line management in oncology: A Canadian experience. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 33(2):221-236.
204.
Wooldridge, B., & Floyd, S.1990.Strategic process effects on consensus. Strategic Management Journal, 10(3):295-302.
Zelman, W.N., & Parham, D.L.1990. Strategic, operational, and marketing concerns of product-line management in health care. Health Care Management Review, 15(1):29-35.
207.
Zuckerman, H.S.1989. Redefining the role of the CEO: Challenges and conflicts. Hospital & Health Services Administration, 34(1):25-38.
