This article is intended to contribute to the continuing development of effective consultant practices. Thus, two types of information are presented. The first is findings summarized from representative publications available in the management literature. Interpretation of the findings was facilitated by classifying cited publications according to scientific rigor. A simple scheme was devised incorporating the categories of (a) experience-based writings, (b) quasi-scientific research, and (c) scientific research. Each citation is further categorized into the consultation phase with which each is primarily concerned: (a) consultant recruiting, (b) entry, (c) contracting, (d) diagnosis, (e) feedback, (f) planning, (g) implementation, and (h) evaluation. The second type of information presented is directions for future research that appear to be worthy of pursuit in contributing to the understanding and practice of consultation. It is hoped that the directions provided in this paper will accelerate the conduct of empirical research on consultation and the development of effective guidelines for action.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Armenakis, A., Bedeian, A., & Pond, S. (1983). Research issues in OD evaluation: Past, present, and future. Academy of Management Review, 8, 320-328.
2.
Armenakis, A., Buckley, M., & Bedeian, A. (1986). Survey research measurement issues in evaluating change: A laboratory investigation. Applied Psychological Measurement, 10 (2), 147-157.
3.
Armenakis, A., & Burdg, H. (1986). Planning for growth. Long Range Planning, 19 (3), 93-102.
4.
Armenakis, A., Feild, H., & Holley, W (1976). Guidelines for overcoming empirically identified evaluation problems of organizational development change agents. Human Relations, 29, 1147-1161.
5.
Armenakis, A., Feild, H., & Mosley, D. (1975). Evaluation guidelines for the OD practitioner. Personnel Journal, 54 (2), 99-103.
6.
Armenakis, A., & Feild, H. (1987). The development of organizational diagnostic norms: An application of client involvement. Consultation: An International Journal, 6 (1), 20-31.
7.
Armenakis, A., & Zmud, R. (1979). Interpreting the measurement of change in organizational research. Personnel Psychology, 32, 709-723.
8.
Beckhard, R., & Harris, R. (1987). Organizational transitions: Managing complex change. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
9.
Bedeian, A. (1986). Management. Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press.
10.
Beer, M. (1980). Organization change and development. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear.
11.
Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1983). Consultation. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
12.
Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1978). The new managerial grid. Houston: Gulf Publishing.
13.
Boss, R. (1983). Team building and the problem of regression: The personal management interview. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 19, 67-83.
14.
Boss, R. & McConkie, M. (1983, Spring). How to select an OD consultant. Public Administration Quarterly, pp. 115-127.
15.
Bouchard, T. (1976). Field research methods: Interviewing, questionnaires, participant observation, systematic observation, unobtrusive measures. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 363-414). Chicago: Rand McNally.
16.
Bower, M. (1982). The forces that launched management consulting are still at work. Journal of Management Consulting, I (1), 4-6.
17.
Bowers, D., Franklin, J., & Pecorella, P. (1975). Matching problems, precursors, and interventions in OD: A systemic approach. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 11, 391-409.
18.
Bowers, D. (1973). OD techniques and their results in 23 organizations: The Michigan ICL study. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 9, 21-43.
19.
Bullock, R., & Svyantek, D. (1985). Analyzing meta-analysis: Potential problems, an unsuccessful replication, and evaluation criteria. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 108-115.
20.
Bullock, R., & Tubbs, M. (1983, August). A meta-analysis of gainsharing plans as OD interventions. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual Academy of Management Meeting, Dallas.
21.
Burke, W, Clark, L., & Koopman, C. (1984, September). Improve your OD project's chances for success. Training and Development Journal, pp. 62-68.
22.
Burke, W (1982). Organization development. Boston: Little, Brown.
23.
Campbell, D., & Stanley, J. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand-McNally.
24.
Cobb, A., & Margulies, N. (1981). Organization development: A political perspective. Academy of Management Review, 6, 49-59.
25.
Code of Ethics and Standards of Professional Practice. (1982). (Available from Acme, Inc., 230 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10169).
26.
Code of Professional Conduct (1985). (Available from Institute of Management Consultants, Inc., 19 West 44th Street, Suite 810, New York, NY 10036.)
27.
Conlon, E. (1978). On the persistence of behavior in planned change contexts: Some effects of instrumentalfeedback. Unpublished manuscript, Georgia Institute of Technology.
28.
DeMeuse, K., & Liebowitz, S. (1981). An empirical analysis of team building research. Group & Organization Studies, 6 (3), 357-378.
29.
Emerson, H. (1911). The twelve principles of efficiency. New York: The Engineering Magazine Co.
30.
Etzion, D. (1979). Achieving balance in a consultation setting. Group & Organization Studies, 4, 366-376.
31.
Fayol, H. (1949). General and industrial management. (C. Storrs, Trans.) London: Pitman Publishing.
32.
Frankenhuis, J. (1977). How to get a good consultant. Harvard Business Review, 55 (6), 133-139.
33.
Franklin, J. (1976). Characteristics of successful and unsuccessful organization development. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 12, 471-492.
34.
Frohman, A. (1970). The development and impact of a joint goal-setting technique for conflict resolution. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
35.
Frohman, M. (1968). Conceptualizing a helping relationship. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Institute for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge.
36.
Gagnon, R. (1983). The internal staff/external consultant decision: A framework for analysis. In Dennis F. Ray (Ed.), Applying systematic knowledge to problems of organization and management (pp. 159-161). Mississippi State, MS: Southern Management Association.
37.
Golembiewski, R., Billingsley, K., & Yeager, S. (1976). Measuring change and persistence in human affairs: Types of change generated by OD designs. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 12, 133-157.
38.
Golembiewski, R., & Carrigan, S. (1970). Planned change in organization style based on the laboratory approach. Administrative Science Quarterly, 15, 79-93.
39.
Golembiewski, R., Proehl, C., & Sink, D. (1981). Success of OD applications in the public sector: Toting up the score for a decade, more or less. Public Administration Review, 41, 679-682.
40.
Goodman, P. (1979). Assessing organizational change: The Rushton quality of work experiment. New York: Wiley.
41.
Goodman, P., Bazerman, M., & Conlon, E. (1980). Institutionalization of planned organizational change. In B. Staw & L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (pp. 215-246). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
42.
Greiner, L. (1967). Patterns of organization change. Harvard Business Review, 45 (3), 119-130.
43.
Greiner, L., & Metzger, R. (1983). Consulting to management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
44.
Hand, H., Estafen, B., & Sims, H. (1975). How effective is data survey and feedback as a technique of organization development? An experiment. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 11, 333-347.
45.
Harrison, R. (1970). Choosing the depth of organization intervention. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 6, 181-202.
46.
Harrison, R. (1971). Research on human relations training: Design and interpretation. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 7, 71-85.
47.
Harvey, J., & Boettger, C. (1971). Improving communication within a managerial workgroup. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 7164-179.
48.
Holley, J. (1987). An exploratory study to develop a typology and model of resistance-to-change behaviors actually used in work situations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Auburn University.
49.
Huse, E. (1980). Organization development and change. St. Paul: West Publishing.
50.
Huczynski, A. (1987). Encyclopedia of organizational change methods. Brookfield, VT: Gower Publishing.
51.
Jacobs, R., & Campbell, D. (1961). The perpetuation of an arbitrary tradition through several generations of a laboratory microculture. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 649-658.
52.
Jenkins, C., Nadler, D., Lawler, E., & Camman, C. (1975). Standardized observations: An approach to measuring the nature of jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 171-181.
53.
Jick, T. (1979). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 602-611.
54.
Kaplan, R. (1978). Stages in developing a consulting relation: A case study of a long beginning. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 14, 43-60.
55.
Kelley, R. (1979). Should you have an internal consultant?Harvard Business Review, 57 (6), 110-120.
56.
Kellogg, D. (1984). Contrasting successful and unsuccessful OD consultation relationships. Group & Organization Studies, 9, 151-176.
57.
King, A. (1974). Expectation effects in organizational change. Administrative Science Quarterly, 19, 221-230.
58.
Kolb, D., & Frohman, A. (1970). An organization development approach to consulting. Sloan Management Review, 12 (1), 51-65.
59.
Kotter, J. (1978). Organizational dynamics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
60.
Kotter, J., & Schlesinger, L. (1979). Choosing strategies for change. Harvard Business Review, 57 (2), 106-114.
61.
Larwood, L., & Gattiker, U. (1985). Rational bias and interorganizational power in the employment of management consultants. Group & Organization Studies, 10, 3-17.
62.
Lawrence, P., & Lorsch, J. (1969). Organization and environment. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
63.
Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2, 34-46.
64.
Likert, R. (1967). The human organization. New York: McGraw-Hill.
65.
Lippitt, G., Lippitt, R., & Lafferty, C. (1984, July). Cutting edge trends in organization development. Training and Development Journal, pp. 59-62.
66.
Lippitt, G. & Lippitt, R. (1978). The consultation process in action. LaJolla, CA: University Associates.
67.
Lovelady, L. (1980). Evaluation of planned organizational change: Issues of knowledge, context, and politics. Personnel Review, 9 (4), 5-14.
68.
Lovelady, L. (1984). The process of organization development: A reformulated model of the change process. [Part 1]. Personnel Review, 13 (2), 2-11.
69.
Mack, H. (1974, March). Evaluating the organization development effort. Training and Development Journal, pp. 42-47.
70.
Management Consultancy (1988, February 13). The Economist, pp. 3-8.
71.
Margulies, N., Wright, P, & Scholl, R. (1977). Organization development techniques: Their impact on change. Group & Organization Studies, 2, 428-448.
72.
Martinko, M., & Gardner, W (1985). Beyond structured observation: Methodological issues and new directions. Academy of Management Review, 10, 676-695.
73.
Mazade, N. (1985). Issues in consultation. Consultation: An International Journal, 4, 7-16.
74.
McClean, A., Sims, D., Mangham, I., & Tuffield, D. (1982). Organization development in transition. Chichester: Wiley.
75.
McGivern, C., & Fineman, S. (1983). Research and consultancy: Towards a conceptual synthesis. Journal of Management Studies, 20 (4), 425-439.
76.
McGonagle, J. (1981). Managing the consultant: A corporate guide. Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Company.
77.
Metzger, R. (1986). Issues and approaches to management consulting education. Consultation: An International Journal, 5 (4), 239-249.
78.
Miller, E. (1975). Socio-technical systems in weaving, 1953-1970: A follow-up study. Human Relations, 28, 349-386.
79.
Mirvis, P., & Berg, D. (1977). Failures in organization development and change. New York: Wiley.
80.
Morrison, P. (1978). Evaluation in OD: A review and assessment. Group & Organization Studies, 3, 42-70.
81.
Nadler, D. (1981). Managing organizational change: An integrative perspective. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 17, 191-21 1.
82.
Nadler, D. (1979). The effects of feedback on task group behavior: A review of the experimental research. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 23, 309-338.
83.
Nadler, D. (1977). Feedback and organization development: Using data-based methods. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
84.
Nadler, D., & Pecorella, P. (1975). Differential effects of multiple interventions in an organization. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 11, 348-366.
85.
Nees, D., & Greiner, L. (1985). Seeing behind the look-alike management consultants. Organizational Dynamics, 14 (3), 68-79.
86.
Nicholas, J. (1979). Evaluation research in organizational change interventions: Considerations and some suggestions. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 15, 23-40.
87.
O'Day, R. (1974). Intimidation rituals: Reactions to reform. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 10, 373-386.
88.
Pawlak, E. (1976). Organizational tinkering. Social Work, 21 (5), 376-380.
89.
Pettigrew, A. (1975). Towards a political theory of organizational intervention. Human Relations, 28, 191-208.
90.
Pond, S., Armenakis, A., & Green, S. (1984). The importance of employee expectations in organizational diagnosis. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 20, 167-180.
91.
Porras, J. (1979). The comparative impact of different OD techniques and intervention intensities. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 15, 156-178.
92.
Porras, J., & Berg, P. (1978). Evaluation methodology in organization development: An analysis and critique. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 14, 151-173.
93.
Rice, A. (1953). Productivity and social organization in an Indian weaving shed: An examination of the socio-technical system of an experimental automatic loomshed. Human Relations, 6, 297-329.
94.
Rohrbaugh, J. (1981). Improving the quality of group judgment: Social judgment analysis and the nominal group technique. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28, 272-288.
95.
Rothwell, R., & Zegveld, W (1979). Technical change and employment. New York: St. Martin's Press..
96.
Ruble, T. (1976). Effects of one's locus of control and the opportunity to participate in planning. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 63-73.
97.
Ryterband, E., & King, D. (1966). Relationship between task choice and resistance to change: A dissonance analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1, 151-168.
98.
Schaffer, R. (1976). Advice to internal and external consultants: Expand your client's capacity to use your help. S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, 41 (4), 39-52.
99.
Schaffer, R. (1981). Productivity improvement strategy: Make success the building block. Management Review, 70, 46-52.
100.
Scheflen, K., Lawler, E., & Hackman, J. (1971). Long term impact of employee participation in the development of pay incentive plans. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55, 182-186.
101.
Schein, E. (1987). Process consultation, volume 11: Some lessons for managers and consultants. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
102.
Schein, V. (1977). Political strategies for implementing organizational change. Group & Organization Studies, 2, 42-48.
103.
Schmitt, N. (1982). The use of analysis of variance and covariance structures to assess beta and gamma change. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 17, 343-358.
104.
Slocum, J. (1978). Does cognitive style affect diagnosis and intervention strategies of change agents?Group & Organization Studies, 3, 199-2 10.
105.
Taylor, J., & Bowers, D. (1972). Survey of organizations. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, Center for the Research Utilization of Scientific Knowledge.
106.
Terborg, J., Howard, G., & Maxwell, S. (1980). Evaluating planned organizational change: A method for assessing alpha, beta, and gamma change. Academy of Management Review, 5, 109-121.
107.
Thompson, H. (1981). Consulting for results. Business Horizons, 24 (6), 62-65.
108.
Tichy, N., & Nisberg, J. (1976). Change agent bias: What they view determines what they do. Group & Organization Studies, 1, 286-301.
109.
Varca, P., & Levy, J. (1984). Individual differences in response to unfavorable group feedback. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33, 100-111.
110.
Vicars, W, & Hartke, D. (1984). Evaluating OD evaluations: A status report. Group & Organization Studies, 9, 177-188.
111.
Walton, R. (1975). The diffusion of new work structures: Explaining why success didn't take. Organizational Dynamics, 4 (3), 3-21.
112.
Walton, R. (1978). Teaching an old dog food new tricks. The Wharton Magazine, 2 (2), 38-47.
113.
Weisbord, M. (1985). The organization development contract revisited. Consultation: An International Journal, 4 (4), 305-315.
114.
Wells, R. (1983). What every manager should know about management consultants. Personnel Journal, 62 (2), 142-148.
115.
Woodward, J. (1958). Management and technology. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
