The accuracy of leadership questionnaires has been the subject of considerable debate in recent years. Although research has demonstrated that such measures can often be systematically biased indices of leader behavior, the issues surrounding the appropriate use of questionnaires are far from resolved. To help clarify some of these concerns, the present article attempts to (a) present a meaningful definition of accuracy in the measurement of leadership, (b) summarize the conclusions from existing research concerning leadership questionnaires, (c) assess the consequences of this research, and (d) offer several practical recommendations for the future of leadership questionnaires.
Campbell, J.P., Daft, R.L., & Hulin, C.L. (1982). What to study: Generating and developing research questions. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
3.
Calder, B.J. (1977). An attribution theory of leadership. In B.M. Staw & G.R. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior (pp. 179-204). Chicago: St. Clair Press.
4.
Cantor, N., & Mischel, W. (1977). Traits as prototypes: Effects on recognition memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 38-48.
5.
Cronbach, L.J. (1955). Processes affecting scores on "understanding of others" and "assumed similarity."Psychological Bulletin, 52, 177-193.
6.
Downey, H.K., Sheridan, J.E., & Slocum, J.W (1976). The path-goal theory of leadership: A longitudinal analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16 (1), 156-177.
7.
Eden, D., & Leviatan, V. (1975). Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 736-740.
8.
Ganster, D.C., Hennessey, H.W., & Luthans, F. (1983). Social desirability response effects: Three alternative models. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 321-331.
9.
House, R.J., & Dessler, G. (1974). The path-goal theory of leadership: Some post hoc and a priori tests. In J.G. Hunt & L.L. Larson (Eds.), Contingency approaches to leadership (pp. 29-59). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
10.
Kerr, S., & Jermier, J.M. (1978). Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22, 375-403.
11.
Korman, A.K. (1974). Contingency approaches to leadership: An overview. In J.G. Hunt & L.L. Larson (Eds.), Contingency approaches to leadership (pp. 189-195). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
12.
Larson, J.R., Jr. (1979). The limited utility of factor analytic techniques for the study of implicit theories in student ratings of teacher behavior. American Educational Research Journal, 16, 201-211.
13.
Lord, R.G. (in press-a). Accuracy in behavioral measurement: An alternative definition based on raters' cognitive schema and signal detection theory. Journal of Applied Psychology.
14.
Lord, R.G. (in press-b). An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership perceptions and behavioral measurement in organizational settings. In B.M. Staw & L.L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 7).
15.
Lord, R.G., Binning, J.F, Rush, M.C., & Thomas, J.C. (1978). The effect of performance cues and leader behavior on questionnaire ratings of leadership behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 21, 27-39.
16.
Lord, R.G., Foti, R.J., & DeVader, C. (in press). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure of leadership categories, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance.
17.
Lord, R.G., Foti, R.J., & Phillips, J.S. (1982). A theory of leadership categorization. In J.G. Hunt, U. Sekaran, & C. Schriesheim (Eds.), Leadership: Beyond establishment views (pp. 104-121). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
18.
Lord, R.G., Phillips, J.S., & Rush, M.C. (1980). Effects of sex and personality on perceptions of emergent leadership, influence and social power. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 176-182.
19.
McElroy, J.C., & Downey, H.K. (1983). Rater involvement as a moderator of performance cues and leader behavior descriptions. Journal of Management, 9, 41-54.
20.
Miner, J.B. (1975). The uncertain future of the leadership concept: An overview. In J.G. Hunt & L.L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership frontiers (pp. 197-208). Kent, OH: Comparative Administrative Research Institute.
21.
Mitchell, T.R., & Kalb, L.S. (1982). Effects of job experience on supervisor attributions for a subordinate's poor performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 181-188.
22.
Mitchell, T.R., & Wood, R.E. (1980). Supervisor's response to subordinate poor performance: A test of an attributional model. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 123-138.
23.
Mitchell, T.R., Larson, J.R., Jr., & Green, S.G. (1977). Leader behavior, situational moderators and group performance: An attributional analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 18, 254-268.
24.
Nathan, B.R., & Lord, R.G. (1983). Cognitive categorization and dimensional schemata: A process approach to the study of halo in performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 102-114.
25.
Phillips, J.S. (1984). The accuracy of leadership ratings: A cognitive categorization perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33, 125-138.
26.
Phillips, J.S., & Lord, R.G. (1981). Causal attributions and perceptions of leadership. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28, 143-163.
27.
Phillips, J.S., & Lord, R.G. (1982). Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem solving groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 486-492.
28.
Rice, R.W, Instone, D., & Adams, J. (1984). Leader sex, leader success and leadership process: Two field studies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 12-32.
29.
Rush, M.C., Phillips, J.S., & Lord, R.G. (1981). The effects of a temporal delay on leader behavior descriptions: A laboratory investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 442-450.
30.
Rush, M.C., Thomas, J.C., & Lord, R.G. (1977). Implicit leadership theory: A potential threat to the internal validity of leader behavior questionnaires. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 20, 93-110.
Schriesheim, C.A., Kinicki, A.J., & Schriesheim, J.R. (1979). The effect of leniency on leader behavior descriptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 23, 1-29.
33.
Stogdill, R.M. (1963). Manual for the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire-Form Xli. Columbus, OH: Bureau of Business Research, The Ohio State University.
34.
Weiss, H.M., & Adler, S.A. (1981). Cognitive complexity and the structure of implicit leadership theories. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 69-78.
35.
Yukl, G.A. (1981). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
